Dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov
The main work on preparing the dictionary was done by S. I. Ozhegov. The first edition of the dictionary was published at the beginning of 1949. In 1952, the second edition of the dictionary was published, in 1953 - the third (not much different from the second). The second edition, while maintaining the general structure, principles of word selection and their explanations, differs sharply from the first edition in the development of specific material. They are practically different books.
The last lifetime edition of Ozhegov’s Dictionary was the 1960 edition. The revised and expanded 9th edition was published in 1972, edited by. N. Yu. Shvedova. From 1972 to 1991, 14 editions of the Dictionary were published, and its volume increased from 57 thousand to 70 thousand words.
In 1992, a new edition of the dictionary was published under the names of its two editors - S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova. The dictionary has undergone changes and additions. According to the authors’ calculations, it included more than 3 thousand new words and expressions, a large number of new meanings and stable combinations, reflecting active processes in modern Russian vocabulary and phraseology. This applies primarily to such areas as science, politics, business life, production, finance, and trade. In the new edition, many ideological and political characteristics and assessments of concepts that were present to varying degrees in previous editions were revised or eliminated (for example, philanthropist, charity etc.), and tendentious examples of use are excluded ( unemployment, unemployed) and marks that previously classified some words as outdated vocabulary, whole groups of words and combinations related to the sphere of religion and church (names of creeds, church rites and sacraments, church holidays, etc.) were re-checked and interpreted. All this reflected the changes that took place in Russian vocabulary in the late 1980s, and obvious jargon, throwaway words, calques that have equivalent Russian equivalents, like many foreign words that widely penetrate speech, were included in the dictionary only selectively: they still had to stand the test of time.
The 2nd edition of the Dictionary by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova, published in 1994, was supplemented with 800 words relevant for modern use compared to the 1st edition; 3rd edition was stereotypical (1995 and 1996); The 4th was published in 1997, and additions relating to the corpus of the dictionary itself, as well as previously unnoted meanings of words and phraseological expressions included in the illustrative part of the articles, amount to more than 3 thousand units, and new materials (mostly cases from modern sources) reflect living processes in the development of Russian vocabulary. The 1998 edition (4th, updated) includes 80 thousand words and phraseological expressions.
"Dictionary of modern Russian literary language" in 17 volumes
In the 17-volume “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (Big Academic) - one of the most significant dictionaries of the Russian literary language - more than 120 thousand words are collected and explained. The first edition of the dictionary was carried out in 1948-1965. Its main task was a detailed description of the norms of word usage and showing the lexical richness of the Russian literary language.
The dictionary included only commonly used vocabulary from A.S. Pushkin until the middle of the 20th century; special and regional words, obsolete and slang words remained outside of it, although certain categories of these words found a place in the dictionary for reference purposes.
An important feature of the dictionary, which distinguishes it from previous dictionaries, is the wide inclusion in its composition of derivative words that are attested in written sources or are widely used in living spoken language. The dictionary also contains the meanings and uses of words that are not included in other lexicographic publications due to their small volume. A special place is occupied by illustrative material that accompanies each dictionary entry. Every meaning, every shade of meaning, every use of a word is supported by a number of quotations taken from authoritative sources.
The dictionary includes: 1) obsolete words that are not used in modern Russian, but are alive and used in the language of the 19th century: coterie- a circle, a group of people pursuing narrow, selfish goals, mature- see, neck- neck, cheeks, 2) words denoting phenomena of old life, old way of life: quitrent-a monetary or in-kind tax collected by a landowner from a serf, solicitor- petitioner in cases, private attorney; 3) terms of a historical nature, denoting phenomena of Old Russian and Old Russian life: polyudye, squad, Truth(code of laws); 4) foreign words, including words denoting phenomena that are not characteristic of our life: savannah, termites, fanza, fellah and so on. Obsolete foreign words were also included in the dictionary if they were used in fiction: chamberlain, chamber cadet, page, Kammer-Frau, life hussar, life physician; 5) colloquial words that are on the border of literary usage, characterized by some reduction: ripped off, mumble, crutch, blurt out, get some lemon, deceive, slob. Outside the dictionary there remain only coarse colloquial words that are completely unacceptable in literary usage, for example to be naughty, make a mess; 6) dialectal (regional) words, which, although not part of the literary language, are widely known and used in the works of the best Russian writers: cauldron, greenery, smoking, roe, speed up, top(ravine), lady, Biryuk It is especially important to include in the dictionary words denoting phenomena of peasant life: zakuta, rakes, cage, kuren; 7) new words of the 1930-1950s: multi-machine operator, Stakhanovite, five-year plan; 8) production and scientific and technical terms: slaughter, lava, layer, miner; 9) geographical names used in the language in a figurative sense: Rubicon, Khodynka, Scylla and Charybdis; 10) personal (proper) names used in a figurative sense: Hercules, Croesus, Khlestakov or as part of terminological names: pansies, Balzac age; 11) various abbreviations: UN, NATO, CMEA; 12) stable combinations of words of different nature, and this is the first time in the history of Russian lexicography.
The dictionary contains a number of instructions that contribute to the normative characteristics of the Russian vocabulary of those years: information about the correct use of the word, the correct formation of its forms, correct pronunciation and stress, etc.
Already during the work on the 1st edition, which registered mainly the lexical and phraseological fund and its functioning in the 1940-1950s, the idea of a new dictionary arose that would reflect the facts of the literary language of a later time, including the 1970s . The idea of preparing a new academic dictionary was transformed into the plan to reissue the first one. The initiative to prepare the 2nd edition belonged to F. P. Filin, and K. S. Gorbachevich became the editor-in-chief of the reissue. In 1991-1994 Volumes I-VI were published. dictionary The preface to it states that “the changes that have occurred in the ratio of commonly used and specialized vocabulary are especially noticeable. The rapid development of technology, the increasing role of science, and the unprecedented influx of information have led to a significant increase in the number of new names, mainly related to professional activities. Scientific terms are now widely penetrate into everyday speech, the process of so-called determinologization of special vocabulary is carried out. Evidence that many terms organically grow into the literary language can be their rethinking and metaphorical use (. mental trauma, moral vacuum, public response and so on.). The compilers of the dictionary also took into account the objective process of democratization of modern speech, which leads to the massive entry into the literary language of colloquial words and expressions ( after school, outback, technician, villager, from the call before call and so on.).
For objective reasons, in the mid-1990s. publication of the dictionary was interrupted. Only six volumes of the 2nd edition (letters A - L) have been published.
§ 42. “Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language” of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. From 1950 to 1965, the Dictionary of the modern Russian language of the Academy of Sciences was published. Its volume is 17 volumes.
Words are provided with grammatical and stylistic marks; Whole combinations of words that include the analyzed word are widely indicated. For each dictionary entry there are brief references that give the spellings, forms and stresses registered in previous dictionaries, and also indicate the sources from which the word came into the Russian language, for example: 1) with the word birch bark -"Old Russian: birch bark; Wed-Russian (XVII century) birch bark; Weissmannov, Lex. 1731, p. 67: birch bark; Words Acad., 1789: birch bark, birch bark - woven from birch bark; Words Academician, p. 52: birch bark And birch bark, birch bark, birch bark; Dal, Slov.: birch bark; Ushak., Words. 1935: birch bark And birch bark"; 2) at the word careful -"With a different spelling: neat, neatness(Nordstet, Slov., 1780), akurat(Dal, Slov.). - Lat. accuratus- precise, thorough, from ad– at and curare– try, take care, Polish. akuratny – good, German – akkurat».
The dictionary contains many well-chosen examples that illustrate the meaning and shades of meaning of a particular word.
A detailed semantic and literary-historical development of dictionary entries, a deeply theoretically thought-out and skillfully applied system of normative and stylistic guidelines, a wide coverage of vocabulary - all this makes the dictionary a most valuable tool for teachers. A new, nineteen-volume edition of this dictionary is currently being prepared.
§ 43. “Dictionary of the Russian Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In parallel with the large dictionary of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the period 1957 – 1961. published a four-volume dictionary intended for a wide range of readers. From the dictionary, ed. D. N. Ushakov, it is distinguished by the wide introduction of modern vocabulary and greater consistency in stylistic notes. It differs from a large academic dictionary in the absence of reference material for each dictionary entry and in a smaller number of words; it includes commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian language.
In 1981–1984 The four-volume academic dictionary came out in a new, revised and expanded edition.
§ 44. Dictionaries of synonyms.
Synonym dictionaries are designed to reflect synonymous relationships between words. Although these dictionaries also maintain the alphabetical order of words, within the alphabet the words (and phrases) are collected into synonymous groups or rows, for example: seethe, bubble, rage, boil; sorcerer, wizard, magician, sorcerer; predominantly, mainly, predominantly, mainly, for the most part, for the most part, more and so on.
For each of the synonyms, stylistic marks can be indicated (colloquial, simple, bookish, etc.) and examples that give an idea of the subtle differences between the meanings of words of the same synonymous series. In order for the reader to quickly find the word he needs, each member of the synonymous group is given in its alphabetical place: bubbling - see seethe, wizard - see Sorcerer, for the most part - see Primarily.
In modern Soviet lexicography, there are several dictionaries of synonyms of the Russian language. In the two-volume Dictionary of Synonyms, ed. A. P. Evgenieva (L., 1970–1971) gives interpretations to the words of the synonymous series, illustrated by examples from texts of fiction. In the one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms” under the same editorship (L., 1975), only the first, usually stylistically neutral, word of the synonymous series is accompanied by a text example, and the remaining words are provided with stylistic notes and comments about individual semantic shades, for example:
fast(in a short period of time due to speed). My movement scared the animal and forced it to quickly hide in a hole (Arsenyev), soon, quickly amplify., lively, agile(fast and easy),one(or living) spirit obi.-colloquial., amplification., in a lively manner obi.-colloquial., amplification., living hand obi.-colloquial., amplification., in one puff simple, enhance...
“Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by Z. E. Aleksandrova (M., 1969) is an index dictionary: it provides only lists of lexical units included in one or another synonymous row (in total there are 9 thousand synonymous rows in the dictionary), without detailed characteristics of their differences in meaning, stylistic coloring and use. As stated in the preface, “The Dictionary is intended as a practical reference for people who speak Russian as a native language, and above all for those who write in it, translate from various languages into Russian, or edit Russian texts” (p. 15).
Here is an example of a synonymous series from the dictionary of Z. E. Alexandrova:
Shut up, fall silent, fall silent, calm down, subside, subside, quiet down; shut up, shut up (colloquial)/about a person: shut up, shut up (rude..simple) / about sound, noise: freeze, stall ◊ [phrases with the same or similar meaning are placed behind this sign] hold (or bite) your tongue; fasten the mouth with all the buttons (simple).
Dictionaries of synonyms are an important tool for studying the vocabulary riches of a language, for practical mastery of lexical means and their use in speech.
§45. phraseological dictionaries. Dictionaries of winged words. In 1967, the first “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, compiled by a team of authors edited by A.I. Molotkov (in 1978, this dictionary was already published in its 3rd edition). The dictionary contains and interprets over four thousand phraseological units. The variability of phraseological units is noted, their different meanings are indicated, and synonymous expressions are given. Each dictionary entry contains examples of the use of phraseological units taken from the works of Russian classics and from modern Soviet literature. At the end of some dictionary entries, historical and etymological information is given that explains the origin of the phrase, as well as bibliographic links to works in which the phraseological unit in question is described.
An example of processing phraseological units in a dictionary:
Sharpen laces (balusters). Simple Engage in empty chatter, idle talk.– Come on, guy, why are you sitting there sharpening your swords, go get some wood... G. Uspensky. From conversations with friends. I went here all summer and ate. I drank, I encouraged, I sharpened balusters here with the girls from dawn to dusk, and suddenly on you, I’m leaving! Chekhov, Groom and Papa. WITH dishwashers could sharpen lasses in the evenings. Fedin, Brothers...
Synonyms: itchy tongue.
– Original: to carve patterned figured posts of railings (balusters – from Italian balaustro-post, turned railings; lyasy – from Polish lasa– lattice, mesh, in construction - rattle). Lit.: S. Maksimov. Winged words. St. Petersburg, 1899, p. 35; V. V. Vinogradov. From the history of Russian vocabulary. – “Russian language at school”, 1941, No. 2, p. 17.
In addition to phraseological dictionaries, there are also collections of popular words and expressions. The most famous is the collection “Winged Words”, compiled by N. S. and M. G. Ashukin (M., 1960), as well as the book by S. Maksimov “Winged Words”, written in the last century and since then has gone through several editions.
§ 46. Other types of dictionaries. Along with explanatory and phraseological dictionaries and dictionaries of synonyms, there are etymological dictionaries, in which the origin of a particular word is revealed. There are several etymological dictionaries of the Russian language. One of them is “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. Preobrazhensky, published in separate editions in 1910–1914. 14 issues were published, which contain material from A to T. The last two issues (T–Z) were published in “Proceedings of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences,” vol. 1, 1949. In 1959, the dictionary was published as a separate book.
The dictionary of A. Preobrazhensky, compiled before the revolution, has not lost its scientific value in our time, although in some ways it is, naturally, outdated. More fundamental – both in volume and in the development of the etymology of words – is the four-volume “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, compiled by M. R. Vasmer (M., 1964–1973; first published in Heidelberg in 1950–1958)
“A short etymological dictionary of the Russian language”, compiled by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov (M., 1961; 3rd ed. – M., 1975) - a manual specifically intended for teachers.
One of the useful features of this dictionary is the display of the historical sequence of the word formation process (see, for example, words adventure, separate, wrong side, magician and etc.). This is also typical for another, also popular science dictionary in genre - “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.M. Shansky and T. A. Bobrova (M., 1994).
Elementary information about the origin of borrowed vocabulary is contained in the dictionary of foreign words. These dictionaries usually list borrowed words, scientific and technical terms used in a given language and in a given era, tell what language they were taken from, and describe the meanings of foreign words. The most famous are the Dictionary of Foreign Words, which has gone through about 20 editions, and the Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words (Moscow, 1992).
New words are recorded in dictionaries of a special type. One of these publications is “Dictionary of New Words and Meanings” (St. Petersburg, 1995). Neologisms from the last four decades are collected here. Each of the neologisms receives an interpretation, and their use is illustrated with excerpts from the press, colloquial speech, journalistic and fiction literature.
There are dictionaries specifically focused on the practical use of language. They contain information about the most common errors, inaccuracies in the use of words, phrases and grammatical structures, and provide linguistically sound recommendations and rules for normative word usage. In Soviet times, the first dictionary of this type was the dictionary-reference book “Correctness of Russian Speech,” compiled by L. P. Krysin and L. I. Skvortsov, edited by S. I. Ozhegov (M., 1962; M., 1965–2nd ed.), in which mainly lexical speech errors are collected and commented. The more significant Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova (M., 1976; 3rd ed. - in 1984) contains a wide variety of cases of difficulties arising in the practical use of the Russian language , – from errors in pronunciation and stress to inaccuracies in syntactic structures.
There are dictionaries that contain information about the grammatical characteristics of a word, for example, about the peculiarities of its declension, conjugation, changes in numbers, etc. Such information is necessary for constructing grammatically correct statements. The most famous publication of this kind is “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. A. Zaliznyak (M., 1977; 2nd ed. – in 1980).
A special lexicographic genre is a variety of dictionaries addressed to schoolchildren. Several such dictionaries have been published in recent years. These are, for example, “School explanatory dictionary of the Russian language” by M. S. Lapatukhin et al. (M., 1981), “School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language” by M. R. Lvov (M., 1987), “School word-formation dictionary of Russian language" by A. N. Tikhonov (M., 1996), "School dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" by K. S. Gorbachevich and others (M., 1980), "School dictionary of foreign words" by V. V. Odintsov and others. (M., 1994).
Such dictionaries are compiled on the basis of a careful selection of lexical material: they contain the most commonly used words, as well as words that are most often encountered in students’ speech practice. Information about the meaning, word-formation structure, usage, and origin of the word is presented in a simple and accessible form; In addition, this information is intended to be educational in nature.
Exercise 49 . Indicate the difference in the interpretation of words heroism, noble, culture in the dictionaries of V. Dahl and S. I. Ozhegov.
50 . Determine the meaning of the following words and combinations: library, telephone, horizon, collection; day after day, day after day, from day to day. Then find out how the meanings of these words and combinations are given in the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov or in the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova.
51 . Using the “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by Z. E. Aleksandrova, find a synonymous row for the verb fulfill. Give examples of combinations of words of this synonymous series with the same and with different nouns in wine. case (written).
52 . Tell us about the origin of words blouse, cap, ditty, using the “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”.
53 . Specify phraseological units that include words wall, honor, using the dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov and the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”.
54 . Indicate the foreign words in the articles of today's newspaper and their meaning. If you have any difficulties, use the Dictionary of Foreign Words.
55 . Using the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M.. 1983), test yourself in the pronunciation of words document, cooking, industry, invention, provision, overcoat, energy, word forms slept, raised, understood, accepted, acquired.
STYLISTICS AND CULTURE OF SPEECH
§47 Subject and tasks of functional stylistics. Stylistics is a special linguistic discipline that studies the means of linguistic expressiveness and the patterns of their use in speech, depending on the goals, situation and sphere of communication.
The basis of stylistics is the study of the stylistic resources of the language: the selection of neutral, bookish and reduced (colloquial) means, their relationship, synonymy of different stylistic words and constructions, the nature of emotional coloring, etc. (see above, § 5 - 19). Knowledge of this allows study the features of the use of stylistic means in varieties of literary language - oral and book-written (see above, §2) and in functional styles.
§ 48. Functional styles. Literary language serves different aspects of social life: science and technology, the press, radio and television, office work; Communication of cultural people in everyday life also occurs in a literary language.
The use of literary language in each of these areas leaves a certain imprint on it. Accordingly, several functional styles of Russian literary speech are distinguished: scientific, official - business, public k i y, about b i h o d n o-b y t o - v o y.
Each functional style is realized in speech genres - specific types of texts that have, on the one hand, specific features that distinguish genres from each other, and on the other, commonality, which is determined by the belonging of a certain group of genres to one functional style. (Compare such genres of official business style as a statement, the text of the law, a business letter, instructions, a certificate from the house management, etc.)
§49. The scientific style, characteristic of the scientific sphere of human activity, is distinguished by general features arising from the characteristics of scientific thinking: abstraction and strict logic of presentation, as well as a number of particular features. Thus, predominantly stylistically neutral and bookish vocabulary is used here; There are clearly expressed tendencies towards unambiguousness of the words and terms used, towards objectivity and some dryness of presentation, towards logical harmony and at the same time complexity of syntactic constructions, reflecting the logical structures of scientific thinking. Some verbal combinations are used especially often in the scientific style and therefore acquire the properties of cliché expressions: data analysis shows; consider the problem; based on the given facts; from what has been said it follows and so on.
An external feature of many scientific texts, especially from the field of mathematics, physics, chemistry and other natural sciences, is the use of symbols (X, Y, Z, etc.), formulas and various kinds of graphic drawings (graphs, diagrams, etc.) .
In the scientific style, the following speech genres can be distinguished: article, monograph, textbook, review, overview, annotation, scientific commentary on the text, lecture, report on special topics, etc. etc.
Example of scientific style: In order to select the required beam section for a given maximum moment of bending forces, it is necessary to set the permissible limit stress in the layer furthest from the neutral axis and divide the bending moment by this stress; we get the moment of inertia of the section. In other words, the bending moment must be divided by the ratio of the moment of inertia to the distance of the layer furthest from the neutral axis(A. N. Krylov. Structural mechanics of a ship (textbook).
§ 50. Official business style is used in the field of business and official relations between people and institutions, in the field of law and legislation. Official business speech is characterized by such features as precision of formulation, eliminating the uncertainty of their understanding, some impersonality of presentation (submitted for discussion, and not “we are bringing it up for discussion”; There are cases of non-fulfillment of the plan etc.), its standardness, reflecting the standardization and regulation of business relations.
In this regard, certain stable combinations play an important role in the official business style: impose an obligation, in absence, to enter into legal force, take measures, in absence, after the expiration of the term and under. A striking sign of business style are phrases with verbal nouns: establishing control, eliminating deficiencies, implementing the program, checking execution and so on.
The official business style is characterized by significant genre diversity. The following speech genres are distinguished here: law (compare, for example, the text of the Constitution of the Russian Federation), resolution, resolution, decree, communiqué, diplomatic note, article of the code, various types of judicial and investigative documentation: protocol, indictment, expert report, verdict, cassation appeal and under.; statement, explanatory note, report, certificate, instruction, announcement, etc. etc.
Examples of official business style: /. Everyone is guaranteed freedom of thought and speech. 2. Propaganda or agitation that incite social, racial, national or religious hatred and enmity are not permitted. Propaganda of social, racial, national, religious and linguistic superiority is prohibited. 3. No one can be forced to express opinions and beliefs or to renounce them. 4. Everyone has the right to freely seek, receive, transmit, produce and disseminate information in any legal way(From Article 29 of the “Constitution of the Russian Federation”); Due to the lack of the required equipment in stock, the plant management is currently unable to satisfy the request of your enterprise(from business correspondence of institutions); Please grant me three days leave without pay(from the statement).
§51. The journalistic style is characteristic primarily of the media - newspapers, radio, television; it is also used in all cases where, along with conveying certain content, it is necessary to influence the reader or listener - to instill in him some ideas, to induce him to perform a certain activity, etc.
The combination of two functions - informative and promotional (incentive) - is what distinguishes the journalistic style from the scientific and official business style. This distinctive feature determines the main linguistic-stylistic property of the language of journalism: the combination of expressive means and neutral, even standard, means.
The following genres of journalistic style can be distinguished: a report on political, economic and similar topics, correspondence, a newspaper essay, a report, a review on international topics; interview, sports commentary, speech at a rally or meeting, etc. etc.
The propaganda orientation of the journalistic style is expressed in the use of expressive and evaluative vocabulary: hard worker, unity, contribute, work with passion, voyage, unprincipled, accomplice, atrocities, fight back etc., in orientation towards modern meanings of words and the novelty of metaphors, figurative comparisons, in the simplicity and accessibility of syntax. The propaganda function dictates the search for the most effective, expressive words and constructions, but very soon a successfully found comparison or metaphor, picked up by many journalists, turns into a cliche.
The informative function is embodied in such features of the journalistic style as emphasized documentary accuracy of what is reported (especially in such genres as radio and newspaper correspondence, latest news, etc.), formality, expressed, for example, in the use of scientific, official business and socio-political terminology, widespread use of abbreviations (UN, Research Institute, CIS. TV and under.).
The share of each function - propaganda and information - varies in different genres of journalistic style. In some, the propaganda function predominates (compare, for example, an editorial in a newspaper), in others - informational (compare correspondence), in others, information about facts and events is combined with their emotional assessment, for which means of other functional styles can be used (for example, everyday -everyday - compare such genre as reportage).
Examples of journalistic style:
In navigation, the day feeds the year. The time when caravans of ships can deliver everything necessary for life to the northerners is short. Aviation for scheduled cargo transportation is now too expensive. Meanwhile, this year navigation is in danger of failure. Behind it. It would seem that this was a purely economic issue - the problem of the survival of the northerners. It is directly related not only to the socio-economic, but also to the political realities of the Far North (from newspaper correspondence - Izvestia, June 25, 1993); The Brazilians started the game cautiously, giving Milan the initiative and not forcing things. During the first half, the Italians increased the pressure and had a fairly noticeable advantage. However, the goal was scored first by the Sao Paulo players, when after a quick dagger counterattack they scattered the Milan defense and Palinha found the right place in the penalty area of the Italian champion(from a sports commentary - newspaper Segodnya, December 14, 1993)
§52. The everyday style, as is clear from its name, is used in various types of everyday relationships. This style is distinguished by the following common features: ease of communication, unpreparedness of speech, its spontaneousness (compare with reading a report, the text of which has been written in advance), direct contact between the participants in communication.
These features find expression in the following specific properties of everyday style: less careful pronunciation than in the genres of book speech (compare a report, a radio broadcast). (kada –"When", current –“only”, etc.), expressiveness of speech, use of emotionally charged vocabulary and specifically colloquial syntactic structures, freer word order than in other functional styles. Gestures, facial expressions, and elements of the situation play an important role: for example, what can simply be pointed out with a gesture is usually omitted and not expressed verbally.
Everyday style is not as clearly divided into speech genres as other functional styles. However, it is also possible to distinguish some genre varieties that differ from each other by the situation in which communication takes place and the relationships of the participants in the speech, for example: a conversation between friends, colleagues, a conversation at the table, a conversation between an adult and a child, a dialogue between a seller and a buyer (hairdresser and client and so on) and some. etc. The predominant form of everyday style is oral speech, namely oral dialogue; however, there are also some written genres, for example private letters, notes.
Examples of everyday style: – Where did you go? – To Novosibirsk.. – Well?.. – It’s okay, it’s just too cold, I still can’t warm up. – Why are you going there? Conference? - Yeah. - Did you bring the report? – Yes... True, they only gave me ten minutes. As soon as I hung up my papers and opened my mouth, they told me: that’s it, your time is up.(dialogue of colleagues);– Tell me, is there milk? – Yes. – Packets or bottles? - In bottles. - And for what date? - Today's. - Give me two.(conversation between seller and buyer).
§ 53. Fiction. The language of fiction differs from the functional styles discussed above. What is characteristic of him is that he uses all the means of language, and not only functional varieties of literary speech, but also elements of vernacular, social and professional jargon, and local dialects. The writer subordinates the selection and use of linguistic means to the aesthetic goals that he seeks to achieve by creating his work. One of these goals is to emotionally influence the reader (not only by the logic of plot development, but also by the system of artistic images), to make him experience the described events, the fate of the characters, etc.
How various linguistic means are combined, what stylistic devices the writer uses, how he “translates” concepts into images, etc., is the subject of a separate branch of stylistic research - the stylistics of artistic speech. The principles and methods of this linguistic science are most clearly and consistently expressed in the works of Academician V.V. Vinogradov, as well as in the works of other Soviet scientists - M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky, B.A. Larin, G.O. Vinokura et al.
Exercise 56. Determine which functional steels the following passages belong to. Find in them the features characteristic of each style.
1) The correlation coefficient characterizes the degree of closeness of the linear relationship between random variables. If random variables X and Y are related by an exact linear relationship:
That r xy = ±1, Moreover, the “plus” or “minus” sign is taken depending on whether the coefficient is positive or negative A.
2) The unprecedented feat accomplished by the Soviet people during the Great Patriotic War has already been reflected in hundreds and thousands of books. However, this truly inexhaustible topic awaits new in-depth research. The events of the war years constantly attract the attention of millions of readers, including those who are just entering life. Books about the past war are rightfully considered one of the most popular types of literature. And this is no coincidence: after all, people want to know as much as possible about the history of our Fatherland.
3) – How is he and Vladimir Nikolaich: Volodka, let’s go to the Polovtsian dances. And they go to “Prince Igor”, but to watch the Polovtsian dances.
4) This document is issued to all those who have completed a full course of study at the above-mentioned educational institution. If lost, it cannot be renewed.
57 . Divide the words and phrases listed below into four groups, in accordance with four functional styles - scientific, official business, journalistic and everyday life. Write the words of each group in a separate column. Insert the missing letters.
The following, military, condensed milk, differential, boiling point, take place, voyage, soda, formulate, send to potatoes, analyze, jalopy, trust, stand on watch, roll with a ball, attract. ..n to responsibility...ost, in the past...year, derive the formula, paraded, such, isothermal, too small, too big, selfless, above-mentioned, kayuk, cha...nia , fail (exam), assist, dispersion, hype, give a reprimand, in case of no-show, constant value.
58 . In the following passages from literary texts, find elements belonging to different functional styles, as well as to non-literary speech - dialects and vernacular. Note also the cases of figurative use of words characteristic of artistic speech.
1) (Words of an old fisherman): We used to know how we lived here!.. Let’s say, in the spring after the trapping we are going to Norway. Now we look at how much loot we all have, and what kind of vessel we need. We hire a schooner, and we are all part of the crew, we load our cargo, right? So we come to Norway, say, in Varda or Truholm, we sell all the goods, after that the Norwegians get along with us on freight. This is so that our schooner does not run back empty. Okay, let's take their goods, run back to Arkhangelsk, and get the final payment there, right? I go to the living room, take everything I need: goods, flour, ropes, tackle; any kind of farming. Our schooner is standing on the Dvina, waiting for us...
(Yu. Kazakov.)
2) The taiga was getting dark, the cedar tree came close, in places almost closing over the river. The water was becoming noisy, and in the remaining grooves from the spring, impenetrable currants, green maidenhair, bunches of cow parsnip with a lump of crimson-blue clubroot on top were growing and were about to open up into light umbrellas. Near the spring, darkened by thickets, in the shade and cold, the last heat of the frying flowers were blooming, already crumbling everywhere, but the marina roots were in the very season; Cuckoo's tears, lady's slippers, wintergreen - the hearty herb - bloomed everywhere, and anemones and corydalis grew in the ravines where the snow had lain for a long time. They were replaced by the tenacious crooked grass, the puppeteer rose with its harmonized leaves... Summer, always late here, made its way with difficulty along the Oparikha [river], into the thick of the forests, stunned by winter frosts and snow.
(V. Astafiev.)
§ 54. Speech culture. Speech culture is understood as the practical implementation in speech of grammatical, lexical and stylistic norms of a literary language. Speech in which words are used both in accordance with their grammatical characteristics and lexical meanings, and stylistically appropriate, is cultural. Speech culture is based on mastery of the native language, its vocabulary and grammar, and its functional styles. A culture of speech is also impossible without a sufficiently high level of general human culture.
An important part of speech culture is the correct choice and appropriate use of words.
§ 55. Accuracy of word usage. In speech, words must be used in strict accordance with their meanings and stylistic coloring. Only in this case is the clarity and correctness of the statement ensured. Good command of a language presupposes mastery of its synonymous means: with their help, a person can express the same meaning or similar meanings in different ways. Knowing the subtle differences between the meanings of synonymous words allows you to avoid constructing incorrect sentences.
For example, you could say: The boy quickly ran out of the room.– The boy quickly ran out of the room.– The boy rushed headlong out of the room,(all three sentences express approximately the same meaning) and it is impossible: The boy quickly ran out of the room, since turnover at a fast pace, placed by dictionaries in one synonymous row with words quickly, swiftly, headlong, headlong and so on, does not combine with verbs denoting movement (compare: play at a fast pace).
On the other hand, different meanings can be conveyed both through different words and through a set of meanings of one word. Consequently, an important condition for accurate word use is knowledge of homonymy and polysemy of words. Compare the use of such ambiguous words as go, give, hand, head, deaf, true (cf.: correct answer And true friend) and many more etc. or homonyms Xhosa 1-3 (girl's braid, mow with a scythe, sand spit), club 1-2 (puff of smoke, club manager) etc.
Finally, a necessary requirement for the use of words in speech is the requirement to use them in accordance with the purposes of speech and the characteristics of the speech situation. Knowing the differences in the stylistic coloring of words and in the areas of their distribution helps to fulfill this requirement.
Thus, book words are quite appropriate in genres of bookish and written speech, such as a scientific article, report, newspaper correspondence, and are rarely used (and sometimes simply inappropriate) in everyday communication situations. Conversely, stylistically reduced, colloquial or colloquial words, as a rule, are not found in the genres of bookish and written speech.
In everyday situations it is not recommended, for example, to speak identical instead of same (– Take any bag: they are identical), cancel instead of remove (- Cancel all dirt from here immediately!), such instead of this, such; a store instead of shop; due to the fact that instead of because of; than instead of how; for instead of because etc. On the other hand, the author of a scientific essay or a person composing a business document will come into conflict with the stylistic norms of the Russian literary language if they begin to use words and phrases such as to get to the bottom of it, to be dumbfounded, to give a reprimand, to the point, big guy, to look for it, around the bush, all the way(instead of even), as if not so and so on.
The choice of synonyms that hardly differ in emotional coloring should also be stylistically correct. So, from two verbs - light up And ignite – the second is more appropriate in this description of the properties of a substance in a popular scientific work: Placed in a special chamber with a high oxygen content, this substance is easilyignites. Compare the inappropriateness of this verb in everyday situations: The wood is damp and will not ignite.
Typically, the words that make up such pairs differ in their sphere of distribution: one gravitates more toward bookish and written speech, the other toward colloquial speech. Compare these pairs: correspond - fit, compare - compare, stop - stop(in contexts like: They stopped working. – They stopped working), similar – the same, necessary – necessary and etc.
Exercise 59. In the sentences below, choose from the brackets the synonym that best fits the context.
1) The boy has a bad habit (disturb, tug) your hair. 2) Mistress (requested, demanded, demanded) crazy price for our dacha, and we had to refuse. 3) He loved since childhood (fast, quick, hasty) driving. 4) The work is almost ready. You just need to enter the latest (amendments, adjustments). 5) Father was out of sorts. He's furious (rolled away, threw away, threw away) a ball caught at his feet. 6) So, (meet you, meet you) as agreed, exactly at five. 7) In our apartment there are several (residents, tenants). 8) Another satellite (spinning, spinning, spinning) around the Earth. 9) – Tell me, bathhouse (functioning, working, open)? 10) The great ancient Greek philosopher Socrates (lived, lived) in the fifth century BC.
60. In the following sentences, find stylistically inappropriate words used. Replace them with something more appropriate to the context. Write by inserting the missing letters.
1) The most difficult thing is to make a diagnosis, determine the nature of the illness. 2) The scientist has been working on obtaining these results for several years. 3) A dim light bulb illuminated a small... large room with dirty wallpaper. 4) The Committee indicated the permissibility of further bagpipes with the construction of the stadium. 5) In the coming weeks... we should pay our dues. 6) A lot of effort was spent trying to find an error in the calculations. 7) I don’t like it when red flowers predominate in a bouquet. 8) - How long will we tolerate your rudeness?! 9) An elderly guard in felt boots and a sheepskin coat was hanging around the store. 10) In the given formula, you can see that the correlation moment characterizes not only the dependence of quantities, but also their re...elation.
PHONETICS, GRAPHICS. ORTHOEPY
§ 56. General concepts. Our speech consists of words that differ in meaning. Yes, in a sentence I hear the dull noise of a boron four words. Each of them has its own meaning, its own meaning, different from the meaning of other words: I hear -"I perceive by ear" noise -"monotonous sound, reminiscent of buzzing" deaf-"unvoiced, indistinct, vague" boron–"large coniferous forest"
Words are made up of sounds: for example, the word I hear consists of five sounds: With, l, s, w, u.
The smallest sound units of language, through which the meaning of words differs (VO l – vA l,R ama –m ama), are called phonemes.
We can not only pronounce words, but also write or print them. When we write or type, speech sounds are represented by letters 1.
1 There is a letter in which individual icons (hieroglyphs) convey not individual sounds, but entire concepts; This is how, for example, the ancient Egyptians wrote, and this is how modern Chinese and Koreans write.
Letters are symbols for depicting speech sounds. Phonetics studies the sound structure of a language and the sound composition of words. Phonetic knowledge helps us in mastering the correct form of a word, in establishing regular relationships between the sound of a word and its spelling. The study of phonetics is the basis for developing correct, normative pronunciation and literate writing skills. Knowledge of the phonetic patterns inherent in a given language is necessary when analyzing the morphemic and word-formation structure of a word (see § 91-99).
Dictionaries that record spelling norms
1. Baronova M. M. Capitalized or small? / M. M. Baronova. – M.: AST: Astrel, 2006.
2. Large spelling dictionary of the Russian language: more than 110,000 words / comp. A. A. Medvedev. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001.
3. Bulyko A. N. Spelling dictionary with rules of the Russian language / A. N. Bulyko, E. I. Artemyeva. - M.: Martin, 2007.
4. Lopatin V.V. How to do it correctly? With a capital letter or with a small letter? / V. V. Lopatin. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2005.
5. Rosenthal D. E. Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language / D. E. Rosenthal, M. A. Telenkova. - M.: Iris Press, 2007.
6. Rosenthal D. E. Handbook of the Russian language: Uppercase or lowercase? / D. E. Rosenthal. - M., 2002.
7. Sazonov I. Yu. How is it correct? Two letters or one? / I. Yu. Sazonov. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002.
8. Together or separately. - M.: Russian language, 2001.
9. Ushakova O. D. How to write? PRE- or PRI-? / O. D. Ushakova. - St. Petersburg: Litera, 2005.
10. Hyphenated, together, separately?: Dictionary-reference book of the Russian language / comp. V. V. Burtseva. - M.: Russian language: Media, 2006.
Dictionaries recording lexical norms
11. Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language / S.I. Ozhegov. - M.: Onyx: Peace and Education, 2006.
12. Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language: Language Changes of the End of the 20th Century / ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2001.
13. Efremova T. F. Explanatory dictionary of official parts of speech of the Russian language / T. F. Efremova. - M.: Russian language, 2001.
14. Alexandrova, Z. E. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language / Z. E. Alexandrova. - M.: Russian language, 2006.
15. Belchikov Yu. A. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language / Yu. A. Belchikov. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002.
16. Vvedenskaya, L. A. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language / L. A. Vvedenskaya. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002.
17. Lvov M.V. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language / M.V. Lvov. - M.: Russian language, 2002.
18. Okuneva, A.P. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language / A.P. Okuneva. - M.: Russian language, 2002.
19. Large dictionary of foreign words: A-Z / comp. A. Yu. Moskvin. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001.
20. Bulyko, A.N. Modern dictionary of foreign words / A.N. Bulyko. - M.: Martin, 2005.
21. Vasyukova, I.A. Dictionary of foreign words: with grammatical forms, synonyms, examples of use / I.A. Vasyukova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2001.
22. Komlev, N. G. Foreign word in business speech: a short dictionary of new words with translation and interpretation / N. G. Komlev. - M., 1992.
23. Krysin, L.P. Explanatory dictionary of foreign words / L.P. Krysin. - M.: Eksmo, 2005.
24. Balykhina, T. M. Dictionary of new Russian vocabulary / T. M. Balykhina, N. Yu. Gorchakova. - M.: Publishing house RUDN, 2006.
25. Osipova, L. I. New words in the Russian language: dictionary-reference book / L. I. Osipova. - M., 2002.
26. Explanatory dictionary of popular words and expressions / author.-comp. A. Kirsanova. - M.: Martin, 2007.
27. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language / comp. A. N. Tikhonov, A. G. Lomov, L. A. Lomova. - M.: Russian language: Media, 2007.
28. Dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language / ed. P. N. Denisova, V. V. Morkovkina. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002.
29. Blokhin, L. F. Typical errors in word usage: dictionary / L. F. Blokhin. - M.: IPTK "Logos" VOS, 2005.
Dictionaries recording spelling norms
30. Ageenko, F. L. Dictionary of accents of the Russian language / F. L. Ageenko, M. V. Zarva. - M.: Russian language, 1993.
31. Ageenko, F. L. Proper names in the Russian language: dictionary of accents by F. L. Ageenko. - M.: Publishing house NC ENAS, 2001.
32. Gorbachevich, K. S. Dictionary of difficulties in pronunciation and stress in modern Russian / K. S. Gorbachevich. - St. Petersburg, 2000.
33. Let's speak correctly! Difficulties of modern Russian pronunciation and stress: a brief dictionary-reference book. - St. Petersburg, 2002.
34. Eskova, N. A. Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language. Grammatical forms. Accent / N. A. Eskova. - M.: Rus. lang., 2003.
35. Kelenchuk, M. L. Dictionary of difficulties of Russian pronunciation / M. L. Kelenchuk. - M.: Russian language, 2001.
36. Orthoepic Dictionary / ed. T. N. Guryeva. - M.: “World of Books”, 2003.
37. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. - 8th ed. - M., 2006.
Dictionaries recording other norms
38. Graudina, L.K. Grammatical correctness of Russian speech: Stylistic dictionary of variants / L.K. Graudina. - M.; Novgorod, 2001.
39. Let's speak correctly! Difficulties of grammatical control in modern Russian: brief. dictionary-reference book / G. N. Sklyarevskaya [etc.]. - M.; St. Petersburg: Academia, 2004.
40. Dictionary of abbreviations of the Russian language / D. Sh. Alekseev [etc.]. - M.: Russian language, 1984.
41. Dictionary of abbreviations. - M.: SPIC Center, 1999.
42. New dictionary of abbreviations of the Russian language / comp. L. B. Bernstein [and others]. - M.: ETS, 1995.
43. Vedina, T. F. Dictionary of personal names / T. F. Vedina. - M.: AST, 1999.
44. Vedina, T. F. Dictionary of surnames / T. F. Vedina. - M.: AST, 1999.
45. Levashov, E.A. Geographical names: adjectives formed from them. Names of residents: dictionary-reference book / E. A. Levashov. - St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 2002.
46. Petrovsky, N. A. Dictionary of Russian personal names / N. A. Petrovsky. - M., 2002.
Reference books and manuals
47. Valgina, N. S. Russian language. Spelling and punctuation / N. S. Valgina, V. N. Svetlysheva. - M.: Neolit, 2002.
48. Rosenthal, D. E. Handbook of spelling, pronunciation, literary editing / D. E. Rosenthal, E. V. Dzhandzhakova, E. P. Kabanova. - M., 1994.
49. Rosenthal, D. E. A manual on the Russian language for applicants to universities / D. E. Rosenthal. - M.: Onyx: New Wave, 2007.
50. Rosenthal, D. E. Practical guide to the Russian language / D. E. Rosenthal. - M., 2007.
51. Cheshko, L. A. Russian language for applicants / L. A. Cheshko. - M.: Iris-Press: Rolf, 2007.
The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography. The history of Russian lexicography spans a whole millennium. It is divided into the ancient period (XI-XVII centuries) and the New Age (from the 18th to the end of the 20th century). Next, we will consider the most significant dictionaries of the 20th century, on the basis of which numerous types of lexicographic publications were later created.
Based on the selection of words and the nature of the explanations, dictionaries are divided into two main types - encyclopedic and linguistic (linguistic, philological).
Encyclopedic dictionaries contain information about concepts, objects, phenomena, as well as various kinds of proper names (names of prominent figures, geographical names, names of institutions, etc.). Encyclopedic dictionaries are divided into general and specific, or sectoral, which include terms of any branch of science, technology or social life.
Language dictionaries (linguistic, philological) interpret the meaning of words, contain information about stress, grammatical forms, and peculiarities of word use. Language dictionaries are divided into monolingual and bilingual (multilingual), or translated. In turn, monolingual dictionaries are divided into explanatory, synonymous, antonymic, historical, orthoepic, orthographic, etymological, phraseological, etc. dictionaries. Among them, explanatory normative dictionaries have the greatest scientific and practical value.
Explanatory dictionaries of the modern Russian language
In Russian lexicography, the name “explanatory dictionary” was first introduced by V. I. Dal, who called his famous work “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language.” “The dictionary is called explanatory because,” Dahl wrote in the preface to it, “that it not only translates one word into another, but interprets and explains the details of the meaning of words and concepts subordinate to them.” Explanatory dictionaries existed before Dahl’s dictionary, but they were not called explanatory.
Explanatory dictionaries are universal reference books on the semantics (meaning) of words, stylistics, grammar and phraseology. Large explanatory dictionaries contain, as illustrations, a rich set of examples of the use of words and expressions selected from the best works of Russian classical and Soviet literature.
Dictionary by D. N. Ushakov
"Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. prof. D. N. Ushakova (1935-1940) continued the traditions of the Russian normative explanatory dictionary ("Dictionary of the Russian Academy", Volume I, edited by J. K. Grot). It includes 85,289 words - the vocabulary of fiction from Pushkin to Gorky, as well as the widespread scientific and socio-political vocabulary of the 19th century. The dictionary presents various categories of terminological and especially socio-political and industrial vocabulary that entered the national language after the October Revolution of 1917 (for example: propaganda, propaganda, agriculture, agro-minimum, antireligious, anti-fascist, Bolshevism, Bolshevik, nominee, hydroelectric station, harvester, combine operator, Leninism and etc.). The most commonly used compound words are also included ( agitprop, university, city council, collective farm, brigade commander, physical training, social insurance and so on.).
The dictionary pursues strictly defined normative goals: to indicate the correct use of words, the correct formation of their forms, the correct pronunciation of words and their individual forms.
The normative use of words, phrases and forms of words in Ushakov’s Dictionary is not only an indication of the correct meanings of words; The dictionary explains common set expressions, gives grammatical forms, indicates the place of stress, gives examples of erroneous word usage, the formation of word forms, highlighting a stressed syllable, incorrect pronunciation or spelling of individual words. Each of these facts is accompanied by restrictive or prohibitive notes or explanations:
(air). Not right. vm. (air).
DISH, -ah, pl.-a (the dish is wrong...)...
ENJOY, -with, -eat, nesov.(church book, outdated). 1. to whom; to what. To be sufficient for someone, to satisfy. 2. Recently, incorrect usage has begun to occur. this word in the sense of “gravitate over someone.” or “to have a predominant meaning among something.”: something prevails. over someone or over something.(perhaps due to an erroneous connection, due to consonance with the word “pressure”)...
The dictionary expands the system of stylistic marks proposed by J. K. Grot. If Grot developed predominantly stylistic marks characteristic of oral styles, then in Ushakov’s Dictionary the stylistic differentiation of book speech styles is thought out in detail.
In the introductory article “How to Use a Dictionary,” five groups of stylistic marks are distinguished:
- 1) indicating types of oral speech: decomposition(colloquial), spacious, (colloquial); fam.(familiar), children's(children's), vulg.(vulgar), etc.;
- 2) indicating types of written speech: book(book), scientific(scientific), technical (technical), specialist, (special), newspapers, (newspaper), publii, (journalistic), chancellor(clerical), official(official), etc.;
- 3) establishing a historical perspective in the words of modern language: new(new), for example: bloodless, street kid, ownerless, brigade, helicopter and so on.; church-book(church and book), old man, (antique) and outdated(obsolete);
- 4) notes to words denoting objects and concepts of alien life: history(historical), pre-revolutionary(pre-revolutionary, for example, with the words white-lining, policeman, schoolgirl), download(foreign, for example, with the words stockbroker, rear admiral and etc.);
- 5) marks indicating expressive shades (expression) of words: bran.(expletive), iron.(ironic) joking(joking) neglected(dismissive) contempt(contemptuous), etc.
In 1947-1948 Ushakov’s dictionary was republished without changes, but even then it became obvious that the four-volume dictionary quite fully and correctly reflected the state of Russian vocabulary in the 1930s, but as a guide to the correct use of the modern language, it was outdated in some of its data: the dictionary did not provide new words and expressions that entered the language in the 1940s; the system of stylistic and other marks is outdated; a number of words and expressions in the 1940s. received new content, new meaning (for example, words marked as obsolete minister, general, marshal, decree, green Street); other words, on the contrary, during the same time moved to the position of obsolete (in the dictionary they were often preceded by the mark “new”, for example: People's Commissar, brigade commander); many words no longer feel new (collective farm, collective farmer, tractor driver, tractor manufacturing and etc.); the expressive coloring of some words has changed; The spelling and spelling recommendations of the dictionary are outdated.
All these numerous and varied changes in the language spoke of the need to create a new dictionary.
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Introduction
Russian language dictionaries are an important element in the study of vocabulary, phraseology and other elements of the Russian language.
The dictionary is:
1) vocabulary, vocabulary of a language, dialect, any social group, individual writer, etc.
2) a reference book containing collections of words (or morphemes, phrases, idioms, etc.), arranged according to a certain characteristic, and providing information about their meanings, use, origin, translation into another language, etc. (linguistic dictionaries) or information about concepts, objects designated by them, about figures in any field of science, culture, etc. (encyclopedic dictionaries).
This meaning of the word DICTIONARY is given by the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary edited by A.M. Prokhorova.
Most people have to deal with only a few “classical” types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which one turns to when wanting to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and spelling, in which they ask about how to correctly write or pronounce a particular word; and perhaps etymological. In reality, the variety of types of dictionaries is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographical tradition and are accessible to the Russian reader.
The primary function of a dictionary is to describe the meanings of words, and the dictionary descriptions, or interpretations, should be clear and understandable, if possible without using words that are less common and less understandable than the word being interpreted. Usually the more common meanings are interpreted first, followed by the rarer ones. Because the exact meaning of a word often depends on context, more detailed dictionaries provide examples of how words are used in different contexts.
In addition to interpretations and examples of use, dictionaries include a rich store of linguistic information. They are a generally accepted source of information about the correct spelling and pronunciation of words, giving preferred and alternative pronunciations and spellings in cases where more than one is allowed. Dictionaries may also provide grammatical information, the etymology of words (their origins and historical development), derived forms in cases where they are unusual or difficult to form, synonyms and antonyms. Larger dictionaries include technical terms, place names, foreign words, and biographical entries. More often, however, these types of information are distributed among different types of more specific dictionaries. explanatory dictionary publication
WITH lovar And Russian literary language
The lexical riches of the Russian language were first presented in the Dictionary of the Russian Academy, published at the end of the 18th century. V. Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, dictionaries were published irregularly, so their composition lagged behind the developing vocabulary of the Russian language.
In 1863-1866. Vladimir Dal published his four-volume dictionary, but this is an interesting, fundamental and extremely important publication there wasn't a Russian dictionary T eraturnog about the language, as it included many dialect words.
The situation in our lexicography changes dramatically after the Great October Socialist Revolution. In a relatively short time, a four-volume dictionary was published, edited by prof. D. N. Ushakova, one-volume dictionary by S. I. Ozhegov; in 1965, the publication of the seventeen-volume “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” of the Academy of Sciences was completed; V. Dahl's dictionary was republished; In addition, a complete dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language has been created, dictionaries of synonyms and a number of others have been published. Along with the compilation of dictionaries, the development of theoretical issues of lexicography is carried out.
“Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was compiled by V. Dahl. Vladimir Ivanovich Dal (1801-1872) was a doctor by training, but during his long life he changed a number of professions: he was a sailor, a military doctor, held responsible positions in the public service, and acted as a fiction writer. Dahl worked on the dictionary for 47 years. In total, his dictionary contains over 200 thousand words. The main task that Dahl set for himself was “to study the folk language, and then move on from there,” freeing Russian literary speech from foreign borrowings, updating it with the means of the folk language. For the first time, the dictionary was based on “the living, oral language of Russian, and especially the folk language,” since “our local dialects are legitimate children of the Russian language and are formed more correctly, more faithfully and more beautifully than our written jargon,” so the dictionary contained a lot of regional vocabulary , For example: papyrus(Vologda) - a small wooden cup; papshatth(Bessarabian) - corn, cobs; parsuk(Ryazan) - hog; couple(Pskov) - soft apple or pear; parfenka(Vyatka) - potatoes; pafura(Arkhangelsk) - one who sniffs tobacco, etc. By basing the dictionary on folk speech, Dahl sought to prove the uselessness of most foreign words. Therefore, when including a foreign word in the dictionary, Dahl immediately puts out “all equivalent, corresponding or close expressions of the Russian language to show whether we have this word or not,” for example: machine -lively; harmony - agreement; gymnastics - agility; horizon - horizon, horizon, skyscraper. skyscraper, eye, curtains, close, mischief, see; resonance - echo, hum. little voice; egoism - selfishness, selfishness etc.
Dahl is an opponent of the alphabetical arrangement of words, in which “every living connection of speech is broken and lost.” Dahl's words are combined into word-derived nests. It seemed to the compiler that with such a nested arrangement of words the laws of Russian word production would be revealed. In addition, such an arrangement of related words, according to Dahl, to a certain extent freed him from precise logical definitions of concepts. Dahl prefers to explain words by selecting synonyms or generally similar words and expressions from the literary language and local dialects. Dahl gives very broad examples when explaining this or that word.
Dahl's dictionary, compiled almost a hundred years ago, is for us an interesting historical monument that widely covers the living folk speech of the first half of the 19th century. with its dialects and professionalisms.
In connection with the drastic changes that occurred after the October Revolution, a lot of new things appeared in the Russian language, especially in its vocabulary. Therefore, already in the first post-revolutionary years, a need was discovered for dictionaries of various types, primarily a dictionary of the Russian language.
In 1935-1940 The four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, edited by prof. D. N. Ushakova. In addition to the editor, the most prominent scientists took part in its compilation: V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur, B.A. Larin, S.I. Ozhegov and B.V. Tomashevsky.
The dictionary includes about 85 thousand words. In accordance with the goals set, the authors introduced words of the modern general literary Russian language into it. The dictionary includes vocabulary presented in works of art and journalism of the 19th and 20th centuries. Soviet-era words are widely included. Compared to previous dictionaries, phraseological units are widely and consistently introduced into the dictionary. So, with the word water, twenty-one whole combinations with this word are indicated, for example: pound water (in a mortar), as if dipped in water, you can’t spill the ends in water, like drop it in water, like water off a duck’s back, like a fish in water (to feel), went through fire and water, come out of water dry, catch fish in troubled waters, bring to clean water, etc. Definitions in the dictionary of D. N. Ushakov are supplemented with examples from works of classical and modern fiction, journalism, scientific literature.
The dictionary provides instructions on the correct pronunciation of words, for example: 1) next to the word boring there are the letters [shn] in parentheses; this means that you need to pronounce “boring”; 2) with the word hello, the letters [ast] are in brackets, which means you need to pronounce “hello” and not “hello”; 3) the word commission contains the letters [isi]; therefore, although this word contains two letters s, it is necessary to pronounce one sound s: “commission”, not “commission”.
Stylistic markings on words are very useful. As widely as in the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov, these marks were not used in any of the previous dictionaries. Markings help the reader determine which style of speech the word belongs to. And this determines its correct use.
The first edition of S. I. Ozhegov’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published in 1949. When compiling the dictionary and revising it, the author set himself the following tasks:
1) compile a dictionary of the modern Russian general literary language, include in it, as completely as possible, words and expressions that have appeared in recent years and have become widespread throughout the nation;
2) clarify the definitions of the meanings of words, primarily socio-political terms, while making the formulation of the definitions as simple as possible, accessible to a wide range of readers;
3) limit the volume of the dictionary to one volume;
4) make the dictionary normative, that is, one in which there would be indications of the correct use of words, correct pronunciation and correct formation of grammatical forms of words.
These tasks determined the composition of the dictionary and the processing of words in it. S. I. Ozhegov’s dictionary includes about 57 thousand words. The choice of words quite accurately reflects the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language. The meanings of many words, especially socio-political terms, are given more accurately and correctly than in previous dictionaries; for example, the meanings of words: atheism, perception, war, thinking. strategy, fascism, language and many others. etc.
Phraseological units are quite widely represented in the dictionary. At the word kind , for example, nine phraseological units with this word are indicated: People of good will.Of your own free will. Your good will. What good and etc.
Words in S.I. Ozhegov’s dictionary are provided with grammatical marks and indications of grammatical forms.
For example, the word live accompanied by the following forms: aliveuh,live; livedb,lived,ъlo; with negation: nthlived, didn't liveb,nthlived. At the word far the following forms are given: - and I (distant) -oh (distant) -yok (far away) -ek b (far away) -eco , - yoko (far And far); dbmore(comparative). At the word Earth the following forms are available: ending -And genitive case (land), wine pad. land, plural number - zimli , earththl, hthblah.
Just like in the dictionary ed. D. N. Ushakova, words in S. I. Ozhegov’s dictionary are provided with stylistic marks.
In necessary cases, words contain indications of correct pronunciation; for example, with the word penniesth the letters NE stand; therefore, one should pronounce “pince-nez” and not “pince-nez.”
After the death of S.I. Ozhegov, his dictionary was republished several times with changes and additions made by prof. N.Yu. Shvedova. On the basis of this dictionary, the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was created, also in one volume, reflecting the current level of development of Russian vocabulary (M., 1992; authors SI Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova).
From 1950 to 1965, a dictionary of modern about the Russian language Academy of Sciences. Its volume - 17 volumes.
Words are provided with grammatical and stylistic marks; Whole combinations of words that include the analyzed word are widely indicated. Each dictionary entry contains brief references that give spellings, forms and accents recorded in previous dictionaries, and also indicate the sources from which s the word entered the Russian language.
The dictionary contains many well-chosen examples that illustrate the meaning and shades of meaning of a particular word.
A detailed semantic and literary-historical development of dictionary entries, a deeply theoretically thought-out and skillfully applied system of normative and stylistic guidelines, a wide coverage of vocabulary - all this makes the dictionary a most valuable tool for teachers.
In parallel with the large dictionary, the USSR Academy of Sciences in the period 1957-1961. published a four-volume dictionary intended for a wide range of readers. From the dictionary, ed. D. N. Ushakov, it is distinguished by the wide introduction of modern vocabulary and greater consistency in stylistic notes. It differs from a large academic dictionary in the absence of reference material for each dictionary entry and in a smaller number of words; it includes commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian language.
In 1981-1984. The four-volume academic dictionary was released in a new, revised and expanded edition.
Synonym dictionaries are designed to reflect synonymous relationships between words. Although these dictionaries also maintain the alphabetical order of words, within the alphabet the words (and phrases) are collected into synonymous groups or rows, for example: seethe, bubble, rage, boil; sorcerer, wizard, magician, sorcerer; predominantly, mainly, predominantly, mainly, for the most part, for the most part, more and so on.
For each of the synonyms, stylistic marks can be indicated (colloquial, simple, bookish, etc.) and examples that give an idea of the subtle differences between the meanings of words of the same synonymous series. In order for the reader to quickly find the word he needs, each member of the synonymous group is given in its alphabetical place: bubble - see seethe, wizard - see Sorcerer, for the most part - see Primarily.
In modern Soviet lexicography, there are several dictionaries of synonyms of the Russian language. In the two-volume Dictionary of Synonyms, ed. A. P. Evgenieva (1970-1971) gives interpretations to the words of the synonymous series, illustrated with examples from fiction texts. In the one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms” under the same editorship (1975), only the first, usually stylistically neutral, word of the synonymous series is accompanied by a text example, and the remaining words are provided with stylistic notes and comments about individual semantic shades.
“Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by Z. E. Aleksandrova (1969) is an index dictionary: it provides only lists of lexical units included in one or another synonymic row (in total there are 9 thousand synonymous rows in the dictionary), without detailed characteristics their differences in meaning, stylistic coloring and use. As stated in the preface, “The Dictionary is intended as a practical reference book for people who speak Russian as a native language, and above all for those who write in it, translate from various languages into Russian, or edit Russian texts.”
Dictionaries of synonyms are an important tool for studying the vocabulary riches of a language, for practical mastery of lexical means and their use in speech.
In 1967, the first “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, compiled by a team of authors edited by A.I. Molotkov (in 1978, this dictionary was already published in its 3rd edition). In dictionary over four thousand phraseological units have been collected and interpreted. Noted variability of phraseological units, their different meanings are indicated, synonymous expressions are given. Each dictionary entry contains examples of the use of phraseological units taken from the works of Russian classics and from modern Soviet literature. At the end of some dictionary entries, historical and etymological information is given that explains the origin of the phrase, as well as bibliographic links to works in which the phraseological unit in question is described.
An example of processing phraseological units in a dictionary:
Sharpen laces (balusters). Simple Engage in empty chatter, idle talk. - Come on, guy, why are you sitting there sharpening your swords, go get some wood... G. Uspensky. From conversations with friends. I went here all summer, ate,I drank, I encouraged, I sharpened balusters here with the girls from dawn to dusk, and suddenly on you, I’m leaving! Chekhov, Groom and Papa. WITH dishwashers could sharpen lasses in the evenings. Fedin, Brothers...
Synonyms: scratch your tongue.
Original: to carve patterned figured posts of railings (balusters - from Italian balaustro- column, turned railings; lyasy - from Polish lasa - grating, mesh, in construction - rattle). Lit.: S. Maksimov. Winged words. St. Petersburg, 1899, p. 35; V. V. Vinogradov. From the history of Russian vocabulary. - “Russian language at school”, 1941, No. 2, p. 17.
In addition to phraseological dictionaries, there are also collections of popular words and expressions. The best known is the collection “Winged Words,” compiled by N. S. and M. G. Ashukin (1960), as well as the book “Winged Words” by S. Maksimov, written in the last century and since then has gone through several editions.
Along with explanatory and phraseological dictionaries and dictionaries nonims, there are dictionaries etymologically e, in which the origin of a particular word is revealed. There are several etymological dictionaries of the Russian language . One of them - “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. Preobrazhensky, published in separate editions in 1910-1914. It came out 14 issues that contain material from A to T. The last two issues (T-Z) were published in “Proceedings of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences,” vol. 1, 1949. In 1959, the dictionary was published as a separate book.
The dictionary of A. Preobrazhensky, compiled before the revolution, has not lost its scientific value in our time, although in some ways it is, naturally, outdated. More fundamental - both in volume and in the development of the etymology of words - is the four-volume "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language", with left by M.R. Vasmer (1964-1973; first published in Heidelberg 1950-1958)
“A short etymological dictionary of the Russian language”, compiled by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov (1961; 3rd ed. - 1975) - manual , specially designed for teachers.
One of the useful features of this dictionary is the display of the historical sequence of the word formation process. This is also typical for another dictionary, also popular science in genre - “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.M. Shansky and T. A. Bobrova (1994).
Basic information about the origin of borrowed vocabulary is contained in dictionaries of foreign words. These dictionaries usually list borrowed words, scientific and technical terms used in a given language and in a given era, tell what language they were taken from, and describe the meanings of foreign words. The most famous are the “Dictionary of Foreign Words”, which has gone through about 20 editions, and the “Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words” (1992).
New words are recorded in a special type of dictionary. One of these publications is “Dictionary of New Words and Meanings” (1995). Neologisms from the last four decades are collected here. Each of the neologisms receives an interpretation, and their use is illustrated with excerpts from the press, colloquial speech, journalistic and fiction literature.
There are dictionaries specifically focused on the practical use of language. They contain information about the most common errors, inaccuracies in the use of words, phrases and grammatical structures, and provide linguistically sound recommendations and rules for normative word usage. In Soviet times, the first dictionary of this type was the dictionary-reference book “Correctness of Russian Speech,” compiled by L. P. Krysin and L. I. Skvortsov, edited by S. I. Ozhegov (1962; 1965 - 2nd ed. ), in which mainly lexical speech errors are collected and commented. The more significant “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language” by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova (1976; 3rd ed. - in 1984) contains a wide variety of cases of difficulties arising in the practical use of the Russian language, - from errors in pronunciation and stress to inaccuracies in syntactic structures.
There are dictionaries that contain information about the grammatical characteristics of a word, for example, about the peculiarities of its declension, conjugation, changes in numbers, etc. Such information is necessary for constructing grammatically correct statements. The most famous publication of this kind is “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. A. Zaliznyak (1977; 2nd ed. - in 1980).
A special lexicographic genre is a variety of dictionaries addressed to schoolchildren. These are, for example, “School Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by M. S. Lapatukhin et al. (1981), “School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by M. R. Lvov (1987), “School Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language” A. N. Tikhonova (1996), “School Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by K. S. Gorbachevich et al. (1980), “School Dictionary of Foreign Words” by V. V. Odintsov et al. (1994 ). Such dictionaries are compiled on the basis of a careful selection of lexical material: they contain the most commonly used words, as well as words that are most often encountered in students’ speech practice. Information about the meaning, word-formation structure, usage, and origin of the word is presented in a simple and accessible form; In addition, this information is intended to be educational in nature.
Conclusion
Dictionaries and reference books are constant companions of our lives, serving us to expand our knowledge and improve our linguistic culture. They are deservedly called satellites of civilization. Dictionaries are truly an inexhaustible treasury of the national language.
Since the fast pace of modern life corresponds to constant changes in language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently republished dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Linguistic dictionaries describe words - their meanings, features of use, structural properties, compatibility, relationship with the lexical systems of other languages, etc.
Lexicographers take part in the compilation of encyclopedias, linguistic and terminological dictionaries, but their main task is the creation of linguistic dictionaries.
Linguistic dictionaries are divided into several types according to their purposes and methods of lexicographic description. A special place is occupied by explanatory dictionaries, the task of which is to explain (interpret) the meanings of words and illustrate their use in speech. In society, explanatory dictionaries are perceived as a repository of the wealth of the language and as the most important source of information about its functioning. In most developed countries of the world, the creation of explanatory dictionaries of national languages is considered as an essential part of the state language policy and is supported by special government programs.
List of sources used
1. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language V. I. Dal, in 4 volumes - St. Petersburg, 1863-1866.
2. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, edited by prof. D. N. Ushakova
3. Dictionary of the Russian language S.I. Ozhegov, Moscow “Russian language” 1989
4. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. N.M. Shansky, T.A. Bobrova. "Proserpina" LLP "School 1994"
5. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language, edited by A.P. Evgenieva, Moscow “Astrel” AST, 2005.
6. Big Encyclopedic Dictionary edited by A.M. Prokhorova.
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