In March 2014, Ukraine lost control over the territory of the Crimean Peninsula, and after a referendum, the unilaterally proclaimed Republic of Crimea became part of the Russian Federation. The next stage in the most complex history of state formations on the territory of the peninsula has ended. Interest in the past has increased again, fueled by both supporters of the annexation of Crimea to Russia and opponents of it.

One of the variants of government structure is called the Crimean Khanate, which existed until the end of the 18th century for three centuries.

Remnant of a great empire

But a long time will pass, the military campaigns of 1735-39 and the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-74 will be carried out. Military successes of troops under the command of Kh.A. Minikha, P.P. Lassi, P.A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, A. Orlov made it possible to conclude the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty in 1774, which removed the Crimean Khanate from Turkish rule and secured Russia’s right to free navigation in the Black Sea.

The last Crimean Khan

Shahin Giray was the name of the last legitimate ruler of the Crimean Khanate. The history of the Girey dynasty ended in the 90s of the 18th century. It ended with internecine wars between the heirs of the dynasty - Bahadir, Arslan and Shahin Giray. With the support of Russian troops, Shahin suppressed an armed uprising against his government, but he was unable to gain popular support. With the complete financial bankruptcy of the state and growing hatred of his person, in 1783 Shahin Giray abdicated the throne and was subsequently executed in Turkey.

Annexation of Crimea

On April 8, 1783, Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto according to which Kuban, the Taman Peninsula and Crimea were part of the Russian lands. The power of the empire was such that in 1791 in Iasi the Ottoman state did not even think of protesting against the recognition of Crimea as Russian possession.

The difficult fate of an entire people

The history of the Crimean Khanate left its mark on the fate of an entire people. The fate of the Crimean Tatar ethnic group is full of difficult turns and difficult periods both in the distant past and in modern history. After the annexation of Crimea, the Russian state tried to assimilate the Tatars into Russian society. The Crimean Tatar battalion was formed as a personal guard for the kings, and the government helped populate the desert lands of Taurida.

But at the same time, at the beginning of the Crimean War, unfounded doubts arose about the loyalty of the Tatars, which led to the eviction of the Crimeans inland and the subsequent increase in emigration of the Crimean Tatars to Turkey. A similar story, in a more severe version, was repeated in the 20th century, under Stalin. In those events we see the roots of today’s difficult situation with the population who consider themselves indigenous to the Crimean peninsula.

Crimean issue

Today the word “Crimea” is again heard in different languages, and again Russia is resolving the Crimean issue. Among the participants in the events there is no such state as the Crimean Khanate, but the history of its rise and fall may be relevant for those who make current world politics.

The army of the Crimean Khanate was quite numerous. There was no regularly active army in the Crimean Khanate. Every Tatar man carried out military service. By order of the khan or bey, he had to go on a campaign.

From an early age, the Tatars learned to wield weapons and endure the hardships of camp life: hunger, cold and fatigue. The main striking force in the campaign was the cavalry. Tatar horses were short, but extremely hardy and unpretentious.

They were not afraid of cold and could cross rivers and swamps. The warrior's weapons have changed little since the campaigns of Genghis Khan. It consisted of a saber, a knife, a bow and a quiver of arrows.

A lasso and several ropes were still needed to bind the prisoners. Military equipment did not lie idle. Almost every year the army of the Crimean Khanate went on a campaign. And here the main role was played not only by the desire of the beys to enrich themselves through military booty, but also by the difficult relations of the Crimean Khanate with its neighbors.

Neighbors of the Crimean Khanate

To the northeast of Crimea lay the lands of Muscovy. Having freed itself from the power of the Golden Horde at the end of the 15th century, it began to gain strength and capture neighboring principalities into its orbit. In the middle of the 16th century, the interests of the Crimean Khan, behind whom stood the Turkish Sultan, and the Moscow Tsar collided.

The struggle flared up over two fragments of the Golden Horde - the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates. Even when Kazan and Astrakhan were annexed to the Muscovite kingdom, the strife did not stop. The Crimean khans regularly undertook more or less successful campaigns against the lands of their northeastern neighbor. In turn, the Moscow tsars sent envoys to Bakhchisarai, paid off with gifts and money, and at the same time did not abandon attempts to win access to the southern seas.

The northern neighbor of the Crimean Khanate was Poland. The ancient Russian lands along the banks of the Dnieper River, which were called Ukraine, went to this state. The border with the Crimean Khanate passed along the steppe, where the Nogai hordes, subject to the khan, roamed since the 16th century. The southern Ukrainian lands remained uninhabited for a long time, since the dangerous neighborhood did not promise a quiet life. The entire Dnieper region suffered from the raids of the Nogais and Tatars. Livestock and household utensils became spoils of war. But the main goal of the raid is to take away civilians.

They were the main source of profit. At the slave markets of Kafa and Gezleve, greedy merchants-slave traders were already waiting for the captives. They bought up unfortunate people, torn from their homeland, from their relatives and friends, and took them to Turkey and other countries. Since the Polish authorities could not protect the population of Ukraine, this task began to be solved by the Cossacks, free people who submitted to the authority of the elected leaders of the atamans. Cossack settlements grew on the banks of the Dnieper and Don. On the Dnieper, the center of the Cossacks became the Zaporozhye Sich, founded in the second half of the 16th century.

The Dnieper, Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks did not limit their actions only to defense against attacks by the troops of the Crimean Khanate. They made campaigns against the possessions of the Crimean khans and Turkish sultans, captured cities and villages, and took away numerous captives. Usually the Cossacks got ready to go on a campaign at the beginning of summer.

They boarded “gulls” - high-speed boats that could accommodate 50–70 people. The armament consisted of several long-barreled cannons, as well as rifles and sabers. These ships reached the shores of Crimea within 24 hours. The campaigns of the Cossacks were distinguished by extreme audacity and desperate courage. Here's just one example. In 1629, the Cossacks decided to seize the treasury of the Crimean khans, which was under the guard of the Turks on Mangup. Under the cover of evening twilight, their “gulls” entered the bay, now called Sevastopol, and reached the then uninhabited fortress of Inkerman.

The Cossacks left the ships in the thickets of reeds, which covered the entire mouth of the Chernaya River, and through the Inkerman Valley took the shortest route to Mangup. They knew that the gates of the fortress were closed only at night, they waited until the unsuspecting guards opened the locks, broke into the fortress and occupied it. With huge booty, the Cossacks set off on their way back. The enemy blocked their way. A fight ensued. Many Cossacks died, most of the treasures had to be abandoned.

Some historians, assessing military actions between the army of the Crimean Khanate and the Cossacks, strive to show their people as victims of attacks, and campaigns against neighbors as a forced response. However, we can say with confidence that it was primarily the civilian population who suffered. Tatars and Cossacks, by the will of fate, turned out to be neighbors.

It was not only wars that determined their relationship. Chumaks, enterprising carriers of salt, fish and other goods, went from Ukraine to Crimea. With the permission of the khans, the Cossacks engaged in fishing in their domains in times of peace. , in turn, grazed livestock on Cossack lands. Neighbors adopted useful customs, styles of clothing, and individual words from each other. Friendly relations were established between them.

Self-name - Crimean yurt (Crimea. Qırım Yurtu, قريم يورتى ‎). In addition to the steppe and foothills of the Crimea proper, it occupied the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Azov region and most of the modern Krasnodar region of Russia. In 1478, the Crimean Khanate officially became an ally of the Ottoman state and remained in this capacity until the 1774 Peace of Küçük-Kainardzhi. It was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1783. Currently, most of the lands of the Khanate (the territories west of the Don) belong to Ukraine, and the remaining part (the lands east of the Don) belongs to Russia.

Capitals of the Khanate

The main city of the Crimean Yurt was the city of Kyrym, also known as Solkhat (modern Old Crimea), which became the capital of Khan Oran-Timur in 1266. According to the most common version, the name Kyrym comes from Chagatai qırım- pit, trench, there is also an opinion that it comes from the Western Kipchak qırım- “my hill” ( qır- hill, hill, -ım- affix of belonging to the first person singular).

When a state independent from the Horde was formed in Crimea, the capital was moved to the fortified mountain fortress of Kyrk-Era, then to Salachik, located in the valley at the foot of Kyrk-Era, and finally, in 1532, to the newly built city of Bakhchisarai.

Story

Background

During the Horde period, the supreme rulers of Crimea were the khans of the Golden Horde, but direct control was exercised by their governors - emirs. The first formally recognized ruler in Crimea is considered to be Aran-Timur, the nephew of Batu, who received this region from Mengu-Timur. This name then gradually spread to the entire peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Kyrk-Eru and Bakhchisarai.

The multinational population of Crimea then consisted mainly of the Kipchaks (Cumans) who lived in the steppe and foothills of the peninsula, whose state was defeated by the Mongols, Greeks, Goths, Alans, and Armenians, who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages, as well as Rusyns who lived in some trading cities. The Crimean nobility was mainly of mixed Kipchak-Mongol origin.

Horde rule, although it had positive aspects, was generally burdensome for the Crimean population. In particular, the rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. Nogai's campaign in 1299 is known, as a result of which a number of Crimean cities suffered. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to appear in Crimea.

There are legends, unconfirmed by Crimean sources, that in the 14th century Crimea was allegedly repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd defeated the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then allegedly invaded Crimea, devastated Chersonesus and captured all valuable church objects there. A similar legend exists about his successor named Vytautas, who in 1397 allegedly reached Kaffa itself in the Crimean campaign and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for the fact that during the Horde unrest at the end of the 14th century, he provided refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and the Grodno region of Belarus. In 1399, Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla by Tokhtamysh’s rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by Emir Edigei, and made peace.

Gaining independence

Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire

Wars with the Russian Kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early period

Since the end of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate made constant raids on the Russian Kingdom and Poland. The Crimean Tatars and Nogais were fluent in raid tactics, choosing a path along watersheds. The main route to Moscow was the Muravsky Way, which ran from Perekop to Tula between the upper reaches of the rivers of two basins, the Dnieper and the Seversky Donets. Having gone 100-200 kilometers into the border region, the Tatars turned back and, spreading wide wings from the main detachment, engaged in robbery and the capture of slaves. The capture of captives - yasyr - and the trade in slaves were an important part of the economy of the Khanate. Captives were sold to Turkey, the Middle East and even European countries. The Crimean city of Kafa was the main slave market. According to some researchers, more than three million people, mostly Ukrainians, Poles and Russians, were sold in the Crimean slave markets over two centuries. Every year, Moscow gathered up to 65 thousand warriors in the spring to carry out border service on the banks of the Oka until late autumn. To protect the country, fortified defensive lines were used, consisting of a chain of forts and cities, ambushes and rubble. In the southeast, the oldest of these lines ran along the Oka from Nizhny Novgorod to Serpukhov, from here it turned south to Tula and continued to Kozelsk. The second line, built under Ivan the Terrible, ran from the city of Alatyr through Shatsk to Orel, continued to Novgorod-Seversky and turned to Putivl. Under Tsar Fedor, a third line arose, passing through the cities of Livny, Yelets, Kursk, Voronezh, Belgorod. The initial population of these cities consisted of Cossacks, Streltsy and other service people. A large number of Cossacks and service people were part of the guard and village services, which monitored the movement of the Crimeans and Nogais in the steppe.

In Crimea itself, the Tatars left little yasyr. According to the ancient Crimean custom, slaves were released as freedmen after 5-6 years of captivity - there is a number of evidence from Russian and Ukrainian documents about returnees from Perekop who “worked out”. Some of those released preferred to remain in Crimea. There is a well-known case, described by the Ukrainian historian Dmitry Yavornitsky, when the ataman of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, Ivan Sirko, who attacked Crimea in 1675, captured huge booty, including about seven thousand Christian captives and freedmen. The ataman asked them whether they wanted to go with the Cossacks to their homeland or return to Crimea. Three thousand expressed a desire to stay and Sirko ordered to kill them. Those who changed their faith while in slavery were released immediately, since Sharia law prohibits holding a Muslim in captivity. According to Russian historian Valery Vozgrin, slavery in Crimea itself almost completely disappeared already in the 16th-17th centuries. Most of the prisoners captured during attacks on their northern neighbors (their peak intensity occurred in the 16th century) were sold to Turkey, where slave labor was widely used, mainly in galleys and in construction work.

XVII - early XVIII centuries

On January 6-12, 1711, the Crimean army left Perekop. Mehmed Giray with 40 thousand Crimeans, accompanied by 7-8 thousand Orlik and Cossacks, 3-5 thousand Poles, 400 Janissaries and 700 Swedes of Colonel Zulich, headed to Kyiv.

During the first half of February 1711, the Crimeans easily captured Bratslav, Boguslav, Nemirov, the few garrisons of which offered virtually no resistance.

In the summer of 1711, when Peter I set off on the Prut Campaign with an army of 80 thousand, the Crimean cavalry numbering 70 thousand sabers, together with the Turkish army, surrounded Peter’s troops, which found themselves in a hopeless situation. Peter I himself was almost captured and was forced to sign a peace treaty on conditions that were extremely unfavorable for Russia. As a result of the Treaty of Prut, Russia lost access to the Sea of ​​Azov and its fleet in the Azov-Black Sea waters. As a result of the Prut victory of the united Turkish-Crimean wars, Russian expansion in the Black Sea region was stopped for a quarter of a century.

The Russian-Turkish War of 1735-39 and the complete devastation of Crimea

The last khans and the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire

After the withdrawal of Russian troops, a widespread uprising occurred in Crimea. Turkish troops landed in Alushta; the Russian resident in Crimea, Veselitsky, was captured by Khan Shahin and handed over to the Turkish commander-in-chief. There were attacks on Russian troops in Alushta, Yalta and other places. The Crimeans elected Devlet IV as khan. At this time, the text of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty was received from Constantinople. But the Crimeans even now did not want to accept independence and cede the indicated cities in Crimea to the Russians, and the Porte considered it necessary to enter into new negotiations with Russia. Dolgorukov's successor, Prince Prozorovsky, negotiated with the khan in the most conciliatory tone, but the Murzas and ordinary Crimeans did not hide their sympathies for the Ottoman Empire. Shahin Geray had few supporters. The Russian party in Crimea was small. But in Kuban he was proclaimed khan, and in 1776 he finally became khan of Crimea and entered Bakhchisarai. The people swore allegiance to him.

Shahin Giray became the last Khan of Crimea. He tried to carry out reforms in the state and reorganize governance along European lines, but these measures were extremely late. Soon after his accession, an uprising against the Russian presence began. The Crimeans attacked Russian troops everywhere, killing up to 900 Russians, and plundered the palace. Shahin was embarrassed, made various promises, but was overthrown, and Bahadir II Giray was elected khan. Türkiye was preparing to send a fleet to the shores of Crimea and start a new war. The uprising was decisively suppressed by Russian troops, Shahin Giray mercilessly punished his opponents. A.V. Suvorov was appointed Prozorovsky’s successor as commander of the Russian troops in Crimea, but the khan was very wary of the new Russian adviser, especially after he deported all Crimean Christians (about 30,000 people) to the Azov region in 1778: Greeks - to Mariupol, Armenians - to Nor-Nakhichevan.

Only now Shahin turned to the Sultan as the caliph for a letter of blessing, and the Porte recognized him as khan, subject to the withdrawal of Russian troops from Crimea. Meanwhile, in 1782, a new uprising began in Crimea, and Shahin was forced to flee to Yenikale, and from there to Kuban. Bahadir II Giray, who was not recognized by Russia, was elected khan. In 1783, Russian troops entered Crimea without warning. Soon Shahin Giray abdicated the throne. He was asked to choose a city in Russia to live in and was given a sum for his relocation with a small retinue and maintenance. He lived first in Voronezh, and then in Kaluga, from where, at his request and with the consent of the Porte, he was released to Turkey and settled on the island of Rhodes, where he was deprived of his life.

There were “small” and “large” divans, which played a very serious role in the life of the state.

A council was called a “small divan” if a narrow circle of nobility took part in it, resolving issues that required urgent and specific decisions.

The “Big Divan” is a meeting of “the whole earth”, when all the Murzas and representatives of the “best” black people took part in it. By tradition, the Karaches retained the right to sanction the appointment of khans from the Geray clan as sultan, which was expressed in the ritual of placing them on the throne in Bakhchisarai.

The state structure of Crimea largely used the Golden Horde and Ottoman structures of state power. Most often, the highest government positions were occupied by the sons, brothers of the khan or other persons of noble origin.

The first official after the khan was the Kalga Sultan. The khan's younger brother or another relative was appointed to this position. Kalga ruled the eastern part of the peninsula, the left wing of the khan's army and administered the state in the event of the death of the khan until a new one was appointed to the throne. He was also the commander-in-chief if the khan did not personally go to war. The second position - nureddin - was also occupied by a member of the khan's family. He was the governor of the western part of the peninsula, chairman of small and local courts, and commanded smaller corps of the right wing on campaigns.

The mufti is the head of the Muslim clergy of Crimea, an interpreter of laws, who has the right to remove judges - qadis, if they judged incorrectly.

Kaymakans - in the late period (end of the 18th century) governing the regions of the Khanate. Or-bey is the head of the Or-Kapy (Perekop) fortress. Most often, this position was occupied by members of the khan family, or a member of the Shirin family. He guarded the borders and watched over the Nogai hordes outside the Crimea. The positions of qadi, vizier and other ministers are similar to the same positions in the Ottoman state.

In addition to the above, there were two important female positions: ana-beim (analogous to the Ottoman post of valide), which was held by the mother or sister of the khan, and ulu-beim (ulu-sultani), the senior wife of the ruling khan. In terms of importance and role in the state, they had the rank next to nureddin.

An important phenomenon in the state life of Crimea was the very strong independence of noble bey families, which in some way brought Crimea closer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The beys ruled their possessions (beyliks) as semi-independent states, administered justice themselves and had their own militia. The beys regularly took part in riots and conspiracies, both against the khan and among themselves, and often wrote denunciations against the khans they did not please the Ottoman government in Istanbul.

Public life

The state religion of Crimea was Islam, and in the customs of the Nogai tribes there were some vestiges of shamanism. Along with the Crimean Tatars and Nogais, Islam was also practiced by the Turks and Circassians living in Crimea.

The permanent non-Muslim population of Crimea was represented by Christians of various denominations: Orthodox (Hellenic-speaking and Turkic-speaking Greeks), Gregorians (Armenians), Armenian Catholics, Roman Catholics (descendants of the Genoese), as well as Jews and Karaites.

Notes

1. Budagov. Comparative dictionary of Turkish-Tatar dialects, T.2, p.51
2. O. Gaivoronsky. Lords of two continents.t.1.Kiev-Bakhchisarai. Oranta.2007
3. Thunmann. "Crimean Khanate"
4. Sigismund Herberstein, Notes on Muscovy, Moscow 1988, p. 175
5. Yavornitsky D.I. History of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. Kyiv, 1990.
6. V. E. Syroechkovsky, Muhammad-Gerai and his vassals, “Scientific Notes of Moscow State University,” vol. 61, 1940, p. 16.
7. Vozgrin V. E. Historical destinies of the Crimean Tatars. Moscow, 1992.
8. Faizov S. F. Funeral “tysh” in the context of the relationship between Rus' and Russia with the Golden Horde and the Crimean yurt
9. Evliya Celebi. Travel Book, pp. 46-47.
10. Evliya Celebi. Travel Book, page 104.

In the middle of the 15th century, when the Golden Horde, weakened by civil strife, began to disintegrate, the Crimean yurt turned into an independent khanate. It was formed after a long struggle with the Golden Horde by Hadji Giray, the first Crimean Khan, founder of the famous Giray dynasty, which ruled Crimea for more than three hundred years. The Crimean Khanate, in addition to the Crimean Peninsula, included the Dnieper and Azov regions.

Under the second Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey (1466-1515), the city of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate, was founded. Khan Adil-Sahib-Girey in the middle of the 16th century finally moved the khan’s residence to Bakhchisarai, where the khan’s palace was built. The name of the city Bakhchisarai translates as “palace in the garden”. In total, in the entire history of the Crimean Khanate there were 44 khans.

Having freed itself from the Golden Horde, the Khanate already in 1478 fell into vassal dependence on Ottoman Turkey.

Taking advantage of the internecine struggle for power between the sons of Hadji Giray, the Turkish Sultan invaded Crimea in 1475. The Turks captured Kafa, Sogdaya (Sudak), all Genoese settlements and fortifications of the southeastern and southern coasts.

The peninsula was surrounded by a chain of Turkish fortresses: Inkerman (formerly Kalamita), Gezlev (Evpatoria), Perekop, Arabat, Yeni-Kale. The cafe, renamed Keffe, became the residence of the Sultan's governor in Crimea.

Since 1478, the Crimean Khanate officially became a vassal of the Ottoman Porte and remained in this capacity until the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774. Turkish sultans confirmed or appointed and removed Crimean khans.

And yet the Khanate did not lose its statehood, and the khans sometimes pursued a policy independent of the Porte and actively participated in the events taking place in Eastern Europe.

After the Turks captured Constantinople and the Genoese possessions in the Crimea, the peninsula lost its former importance in the trade of Western Europe with the countries of the East. The position of a vassal of Turkey aggravated the economic and political backwardness of the Crimean Khanate.

The Crimean feudal lords preferred to look for a way out of the difficult economic situation in beshbash - predatory raids on neighboring countries to seize booty and wealth. The slave trade in the Khanate, which began with Mengli Giray, turned into a trade, and Crimea became the largest international slave market. True, starting from the fifteenth century, the Zaporozhye Sich became a serious obstacle to raids not only on Ukrainian, but also on Moscow and Polish lands.

The heyday of the Crimean Khanate occurred at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. At this time, culture and art noticeably developed in the Khanate. Architecture has reached a high level. Beautiful mosques, fountains, and water pipelines were built, for which many European, especially Italian, architects were involved.

The main fortress at the entrance to the peninsula was Perekopskaya, which was the gateway to Crimea. The functions of protecting Crimea were performed by the fortress cities of Arabat and Kerch. The trading ports were Gezlev and Kafa. Military garrisons (mostly Turkish, partly local Greeks) were also maintained in Balaklava, Sudak, Kerch, and Cafe.

The state religion on the territory of Crimea was Islam, and shamanism dominated among the Nogai tribes. According to Sharia, every Muslim must participate in wars with infidels. Military activity was mandatory for both large and small feudal lords.

The entire period of the 15th - 18th centuries was a time of almost continuous border conflicts and wars. Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and other countries were constantly in a state of great tension, since not only the border lands, but also the deep territories of the states were threatened by the possibility of a Tatar invasion. The Turkish government often sent janissary troops and artillery to strengthen the military power of the Tatar army.

The devastating Tatar-Turkish attacks increased from year to year. So, for example, if from 1450 to 1586 there were 84 Tatar attacks on Ukrainian lands, then from 1600 to 1647 - over 70. The objects of Turkish-Tatar attacks were, first of all, cities and towns on the territory of Ukraine.

In the summer of 1571, all Crimean forces led by Khan Davlet-Girey marched on Moscow. Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his corps of guardsmen barely escaped capture. Khan positioned himself near the walls of Moscow and set fire to the settlements. Within a few hours, a huge fire destroyed the city. Losses among residents were enormous. On the way back, the Tatars plundered 30 cities and districts, and more than 60 thousand Russian captives were taken into slavery.

Relations with Crimea were extremely difficult for European countries, since in addition to military methods - raids, wars, the rulers of Crimea often resorted to the Golden Horde practice of collecting tribute from nearby territories. (In the first half of the 17th century, the Russian state alone spent up to 1 million rubles for these purposes. (With this money, four cities could be built annually.)

After the annexation of Crimea to Russia (1783), the entire Muslim population of the peninsula began to be called “Tatars.” By the 80s of the 18th century, there were about 500 thousand Crimean Tatars.

In 1385, Timur defeated the Golden Horde, which led to its final disintegration into separate parts, each of which tried to play a dominant role. The nomadic nobility of Crimea took advantage of the situation to create their own state. The long struggle between feudal factions ended in 1443 with the victory of Hadji Giray, who founded the independent Crimean Khanate.

The capital of the Khanate led by the Girey dynasty until the end of the 15th century. the city of Crimea remained, then for a short time it was transferred to Kirk-Er, and in the 14th century. a new residence of the Gireys is being built - Bakhchisarai. The territory of the state included Crimea, the Black Sea steppes and the Taman Peninsula. The situation in Crimea had changed significantly by this time. From the end of the 13th century. All trade relations between Crimea and the East are interrupted. The Genoese merchants tried to improve matters by selling local goods - fish, bread, leather, horses, and slaves. An increasing number of ordinary nomads are beginning to settle down, which causes the emergence of many small villages.

In 1475, the army of the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II captured the Genoese possessions in the Black Sea region. The Crimean Khanate lost much of its sovereignty and became dependent on the Ottomans, which was secured by the elevation to the throne “from the hands” of the Sultan of Hadji-Girey’s son, Mengli-Girey. From the beginning of the 16th century. The sultans kept representatives of the Girey family hostage in Istanbul: in case of disobedience, the khan could easily be replaced by a “reserve” ruler who was always on hand.

The most important duty of the khans was to field troops to participate in the conquest of the Ottomans. Tatar troops regularly fought in Asia Minor and on the Balkan Peninsula. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Crimean army supported the future Sultan Selim I in the struggle for the throne. There is information that Selim’s brother and main rival Ahmed died at the hands of one of the sons of Mengli-Girey. The active participation of the khans in the Ottoman wars with Poland and Moldova turned the Khanate into a conductor of the aggressive policy of the sultans in Eastern Europe.

Connections between the Crimean khans and the Russian state were established even before the subjugation of Crimea to the Ottomans. Until the fall of the Great Horde, the main rival of Crimea, Mengli-Girey maintained friendly relations with Russia. The Russian-Crimean alliance was based on common interests in the fight against the Horde and its ally, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After the defeat of the Horde in 1502, the alliance quickly faded away. Regular raids by Crimean troops began, often reaching as far as Moscow. In 1571, the Tatars and Nogais took and burned Moscow during one of their raids. The aggressiveness of Crimea created a constant threat to the southern borders of Rus'. Until its annexation to Russia in 1552-1556. The Crimean Khanate of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates claimed the role of their patron. At the same time, the khans received help and support from the sultans. The incessant raids of feudal lords for the purpose of robbery on Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Moldavian, Adyghe lands brought not only trophies and livestock, but also numerous captives who were turned into slaves.

The khans and high nobility received certain benefits from “commemoration” (gifts) from the Russian and Lithuanian governments. It was a symbolic form of tribute, a legacy from the Golden Horde times. The Crimean Khanate was not a single state, but split into the possessions of individual powerful
beyev - beyliks. The khans themselves depended on the will of the Tatar nobility. The main role in politics was played by members of several noble families—Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Sedzheut, Mangit, Yashlau, the heads of which bore the title “Karachi.”

The formation of the Crimean Khanate strengthened the process of formation of the Crimean Tatars as a nationality. In the XIII - XVI centuries. The population of the Tauride Peninsula, which has long been distinguished by its multi-ethnicity, is becoming even more complex and heterogeneous. In addition to the Greeks, Alans, Rus, Bulgarians, Karaites, Eikhs, and Kipchaks who previously lived here, Mongols, Italians, and Armenians appear. In the 15th century and later some of the Turks from Asia Minor moved here along with the Ottoman troops. The local population is also replenished by numerous prisoners of various origins. In such a historically complex and ethnically diverse environment, the formation of the Crimean Tatar nationality took place.

Anthropological studies suggest that the medieval inhabitants of the peninsula lived in compact groups based on ethnicity or religion, but the urban population seemed more heterogeneous than the rural one. There was a mixture between the numerically predominant population of the Caucasian species and carriers of the Mongoloid physical appearance. Soviet scientists (K.F. Sokolova, Yu.D. Benevolenskaya) believe that by the time the Mongols appeared in Crimea, a type of population had already developed, similar in composition to the inhabitants of the Azov region and the Lower Volga. The predominant mass were people of the Caucasian type, who in many ways resembled the Kipchaks. Most likely, it was on their basis that the formation of the northern groups of Crimean Tatars took place in the future. The South Coast Tatars apparently included mainly descendants of a number of Turkic-speaking and other peoples who had previously penetrated the peninsula. Materials from later Muslim burials, examined by the prominent Soviet anthropologist V.P. Alekseev, allow us to think that the process of formation of the dominant type of the Crimean population was completed somewhere in the XVI-XVII

centuries, however, some differences, especially between urban and rural residents, persisted for a long time.

Due to the characteristics of their origin, historical destinies, dialect differences, the Crimean Tatars were divided into three main groups; The first of them consisted of the so-called steppe (North Crimean), the second - the middle and the third - the south coast Tatars. There were certain differences between these groups in everyday life, customs and dialects. The Steppe Tatars were quite close to the Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes of the northwestern Kipchak group. The South Coast Tatars and a significant part of the so-called middle Tatars linguistically belonged to the southwestern, or Oghuz, group of Turkic languages. Among the Crimean Tatars, a certain part stands out, which was called “Nogaily”. Obviously, this was associated with the resettlement of Turkic-speaking nomadic Nogais from the Black Sea steppes to Crimea. All this speaks of the diversity of ethnic components and the complexity of the process of formation of the Crimean Tatar nationality in the 13th-16th centuries.

In the history of the Crimean Khanate, the 17th century is marked by increased feudal fragmentation. This was due to land relations and the socio-economic system of the Khanate, where there were several types of feudal property. A significant tract of land belonged to the Turkish sultans, their governors, Crimean khans, beys and murzas. Tatar feudal lords, along with land ownership, had... under their authority and dependent relatives from simple pastoralists. In their economy, especially agriculture, the labor of slaves from prisoners of war was also widely used.

The main branch of the local economy during this period remained extensive nomadic cattle breeding. The slave trade flourished, and only on the southern coast were there pockets of settled agriculture. The work of a farmer was considered the lot of a slave and therefore was not held in special esteem.

Primitive cattle breeding could not
provide the population with the products necessary to support life. The Crimean Tatars themselves said
in the 17th century to the envoys of the Turkish Sultan: “But there are more than a hundred thousand Tatars who have neither agriculture nor trade. If they don’t raid, then how will they live? This is our service to the padishah.” Terrible poverty, heavy oppression and the dominance of feudal lords made the life of a significant number of nomads almost unbearable. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the Tatar Murzas and Beys recruited numerous detachments and carried out predatory raids on their neighbors. In addition, the influx of masses of slaves captured during such raids brought enormous financial benefits and was used to replenish the Janissary army, rowers on sea galleys and for other purposes.

In the first half of the century alone, Tatar feudal lords abducted more than 200 thousand captives from Russian lands (the population of European Russia in 1646 was about 7 million people). Poorly protected Ukrainian lands suffered even more. Only for 1654-1657. More than 50 thousand people were driven into slavery from Ukraine. By the 80s of the 17th century. Right-bank Ukraine was almost completely depopulated. From 1605 to 1644, at least 75 Tatar raids were carried out on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which included Ukraine.

The need for slaves in the primitive economy of Crimea was insignificant, and therefore thousands of polonyaniks were sold at slave markets. In 1656-1657 The Russian government managed to ransom 152 people from Crimea by paying 14,686 rubles. 72 Kop. (approximately 96 rubles 55 kopecks for each captive), which is for the middle of the 17th century. was a fabulously high figure. The capture of prisoners and the slave trade were beneficial to the feudal elite of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire.

Enormous funds from the plague could not revive the economy of the Khanate or change the stagnant nature of its subsistence economy. A tenth of the looted property and slaves went to the khan, followed by payment to the beys and murzas. Therefore, ordinary nomads who participated in the raids received only a small share. At the same time, one should take into account the incredible high cost of food in Crimea. During the period under review, one osmina (small measure of volume) of rye cost 50-60 kopecks. As a result, ordinary ulus Tatars remained in a semi-beggarly state and, in order to make ends meet, took part in raids. The plight in the Khanate especially worsened after the 16th and 14th centuries. Some of the Nogais migrated here.

Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. was experiencing an acute crisis that gripped all aspects of domestic life and sharply weakened its international position. The crisis was associated with the growth of hereditary land ownership and the strengthening of large feudal lords, which replaced the military-feudal system, which was based on temporary and lifelong ownership of land.

The dependence of the Crimean khans on Istanbul was a burden and often irritated the Tatar nobility. Therefore, the khans had to in the 17th century. either follow the lead of the aristocracy, or fight against it. In both cases, the khans usually quickly lost their throne. That is why on the Crimean throne in the 17th century. 22 khans were replaced. The Gireys, relying on the nobility, often made attempts to conduct independent internal and external
politics. At the beginning of the 17th century. Khan Shagin-Girey, who had long fought for the throne with Janibek Khan, tried to separate himself from Turkey. With the help of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, he sought to overthrow the power of Sultan Islam-Girey (1644-1654), and with the help of Russia and Poland, Khan Adil-Girey (1666-1670). However, attempts to gain independence ended in failure for Crimea.

At the beginning of the 17th century. The Crimean Khanate took an active part in the war of the Ottoman Empire against Poland. In 1614-1621. Tatar feudal lords undertook 17 major campaigns and 6 small raids, devastating Podolia, Bukovina, Bratslav region, Volyn. During these military campaigns they reached Lviv, Kyiv and Krakow,
Although peace was concluded between Poland and Turkey in 1630, this did not stop the raids from Crimea. During this period, the Khanate maintained more peaceful relations with Russia, and the intensity of raids on Russian lands was less than on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

However, the situation changed in 1632, when Russia began a war for Smolensk, which was captured by Poland in 1611. The detachments of the Crimean Khan, numbering up to 20-30 thousand people, began to ravage the outskirts of Tula, Serpukhov, Kashira, Moscow and other cities of Russia. Significant detachments of Russian troops had to be withdrawn from near Smolensk and transferred to the southern borders.

Foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate in the 17th century. It was not limited to attacks and robberies of neighboring states. The main principle of this policy was to maintain a “balance of power,” or rather, the weakening of both Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the 16th and 17th centuries. The Crimean khans repeatedly tried, in open and veiled form, to present themselves as heirs of the Golden Horde.

The war for Smolensk showed the unreliability of the defense of the southern borders of Russia, and in 1635-1654. A system of border fortifications was erected - the Belgorod defensive line. A continuous rampart with a palisade began in Akhtyrka (near Kharkov) and through Belgorod, Kozlov and Tambov reached Simbirsk on the Volga, covering Russian lands. Therefore, the intensity of Crimean raids on Russia noticeably decreases, except for short-term attacks in 1645. The reason for the increase in raids was the Turkish-Venetian naval war for Crete in 1645-1669. The war required slave oarsmen for the Ottoman fleet in the Mediterranean.

Liberation war of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples 1648-1654. and the Pereyaslav Rada of 1654 dramatically changed the foreign policy goals of the Crimean Khanate, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the years of this war, Islam-Girey hoped, with the support of Khmelnitsky, to free himself from the power of the Ottoman Empire. However, the khan was afraid of weakening Poland excessively and therefore, at critical moments, he repeatedly betrayed Bogdan Khmelnitsky.

After the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654, the Crimean Khanate changed its foreign policy course and entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against Russia and Ukraine. However, in 1655-1657. Polish and Tatar troops suffered major defeats near Akhmatov, Lvov, at the mouth of the Dnieper and Bug.

In the late 60s - early 70s. HUP c. There was a new aggravation of relations between the Ottoman Empire, Russia and Poland. Russian and Ukrainian regiments in 1677 and 1678 repelled attacks and twice inflicted a major defeat on Turkish and allied Tatar detachments near Chigirin. Hostilities between Turkey and Russia ended in 1681 with a peace agreement concluded in Bakhchisarai. However, in 1686, Russia joined the so-called Holy League, which included Austria, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Venice. The bloc of these states was directed against the Ottoman Empire, which intensified its military attack on Central Europe. Fulfilling its obligations to its allies, the Russian army began military operations against Crimea in 1687. Although the campaigns of 1687-1688 under the command of V.V. Golitsyn ended in failure, they helped for-
hold the forces of the Crimean khans at Perekop.

In 1689-1694. Russia fought against the Crimean Khanate mainly with the forces of the Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks, but their campaigns could not eliminate the danger of an attack by the Crimean and Belgorod Tatars. In an effort to eliminate this threat, as well as to break through to the shores of the southern seas, in 1695 and 1696. Peter I undertakes the Azov campaigns. At the same time, Russian and Ukrainian regiments captured some Tatar fortresses at the mouth of the Dnieper. According to the terms of the treaties concluded in 1699 and 1700, the Ottoman Empire renounced its claims to Ukraine, and Azov went to Russia. In the 17th century Crimea tried not only to eliminate its dependence on Turkey, but also to expand its territory at the expense of its neighbors. The joint struggle of Russia, Ukraine and Poland put an end to these aggressive aspirations.

From the collection “Crimea: past and present", Institute of History of the USSR, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1988