a) many different types
B) two different types
B) two similar species
D) only one type
2. According to Darwin's hypothesis, the material for natural selection is:
A) crossing of homologous chromosomes during cell division
B) random divergence of chromosomes into gametes
B) a random combination of gametes during fertilization
D) the constant appearance of mutations in the body
3. By the struggle for existence, supporters of Darwin’s hypothesis understand:
A) survival of the strongest organism
B) competition with individuals of their own species
B) competition with individuals of other species
D) adaptation to environmental conditions
4. In the struggle for existence less
Adapted individuals:
A) everyone dies at once
B) do not leave offspring
B) leave fewer offspring than those who are more fit
D) do not survive to puberty and die
5. Darwin suggested that different species of Galapagos finches, feeding on different foods, arose as a result of struggle:
A) interspecific b) intraspecific
B) with environmental conditions
D) with a person
6. After the snowstorm, mainly birds with medium wing length survived, while long-winged and short-winged birds died. In this case... selection operates.
A) driving b) liquidating
B) stabilizing
D) disruptive
7. On a green meadow, among green grasshoppers, there is a selection based on body color, which is called:
A) disruptive b) driving
B) stabilizing
D) phenotypic
D) patronizing
8. Darwinists consider the most important factor in evolution:
A) mutational variability
B) the struggle for existence
B) natural selection of the fittest
D) geographic and environmental isolation
D) genetic drift and population waves
9. In the struggle for existence, the most necessary property of the species
Evolutionists consider the ability:
A) adaptation to environmental conditions
B) to intense mating
B) leave numerous offspring
D) compete with other species
10. The main reasons for the struggle for existence within a population:
A) a large number of individuals
B) changing number of individuals
B) changing environmental conditions
D) unfavorable environmental conditions
D) limited food supply
E) natural selection
11. The struggle for existence can lead to:
A) displacement of one species by another
B) mutual fitness of species in the same area
B) territorial separation of species
D) natural selection of the fittest
12. Population heterogeneity is a factor:
A) favorable for survival
B) harmful to survival
B) indifferent to survival
D) dependent on self-regulation
13. What is correct?
A) mutual assistance and cooperation are characteristic only of people
B) according to the Bible, previously animals did not eat each other
B) adaptive variability is associated with monomorphic genes
D) natural selection stabilizes the gene pool of the population
One of the driving factors of evolution is the struggle for existence. The struggle for existence is a set of diverse and complex relationships that exist between organisms and environmental conditions. Darwin identified three main forms of struggle for existence: interspecific, intraspecific, and struggle against unfavorable environmental conditions.
Another example of the struggle for existence is the mutually beneficial influence of one species on another or others, similarly animals pollinate plants and transfer seeds, feeding on nectar, pollen and fruits. Typically, interspecies struggle for existence intensifies and intensifies intraspecific struggle.
There is no respite in interspecies struggle. It goes on constantly, day after day, generation after generation, and the rules of this struggle are constantly changing. A situation of a vicious circle arises when the improvement of the prey in resisting the predator entails the improvement of the predators' hunting methods, which in turn entails the improvement of the prey, and so on circle after circle. All species included in the ecosystem have to “run as fast as they can just to stay in place” - they have to constantly change just to maintain their place in the ecosystem.
The paradoxical feature of the interspecies struggle for existence is that there are losers, but there are no undisputed winners.
Penguins can serve as an example of a victim of interspecies struggle. Since penguins nest primarily in isolated areas, adults on land have virtually no natural enemies; however, human-introduced mammals such as dogs and cats pose a serious threat. For self-defense, penguins use their beaks and fins, which are effective weapons. But chicks left without parental supervision become easy prey for the brown skua. Some species of seagulls take every opportunity to steal penguin eggs.
An example of a predator in interspecific struggle is the fox. The fox, although it belongs to typical predators, feeds on a very diverse diet. Everywhere, the basis of its diet consists of small rodents, mainly voles. One can even say that the state of the population of this predator largely depends on the sufficiency of their number and availability. This especially applies to the winter period, when the fox lives primarily by hunting field mice: the animal, sensing a rodent under the snow cover, listens to its squeak, and then quickly dives into the snow or scatters it with its paws, trying to catch its prey. This method of hunting is called mouseing.
The wolf is another typical predator in the interspecific struggle for existence, obtaining food by actively searching for and pursuing victims.
The basis of wolves' diet is ungulates: in the tundra - reindeer; in the forest zone - elk, deer, roe deer, wild boars; in the steppes and deserts - antelopes. Wolves also attack domestic animals, including dogs. They also catch, especially solitary wolves, smaller prey: hares, gophers, mouse-like rodents, and stoats.
The result of the interspecies struggle for existence is:
- use of one species by another as food
- resettlement in a new territory.
Another type of struggle for existence is intraspecific struggle. It occurs most acutely, since all individuals of the species have the same ecological niche. During intraspecific struggle, organisms compete for limited resources - food, territorial resources, males of some animals compete with each other for fertilization of the female.
You can recall the bright outfit of feathers of a rooster, a large comb, spurs on its legs, loud singing, demonstrative behavior, courtship, as well as fights that arise, all this is competition between males for a female, leading to further mating with her. Direct observations show that females do not at all make a choice between one or another rooster, but, on the contrary, roosters constantly quarrel and fight over females and try to drive away rivals.
Another example is male peacocks. Those males who have better plumage, and the one who is stronger, will win, as a result of which they will mate with the female.
To reduce the severity of intraspecific struggle, organisms develop various adaptations. At the same time, species adaptations that benefit the species as a whole often harm individual individuals and lead to their death. Intraspecific struggle leads to the death of less adapted individuals, thus promoting natural selection.
The result of the intraspecific struggle for existence is:
- Preservation of the population and species at the expense of the death of the weak.
- Victory of a more viable population over a less viable one occupying the same ecological niche.
The last type of struggle for existence is the struggle against unfavorable environmental conditions, which also intensifies intraspecific struggle-competition, since, in addition to the struggle between individuals of the same species, competition for factors also appears inanimate nature- for example, minerals, light and others. Hereditary variability that increases the adaptability of a species to factors environment, leads to biological progress.
Factors of inanimate nature have a huge impact on the survival of organisms. Many plants die during cold, snowy winters. In severe frosts, mortality also increases among animals living in the soil. In winter, when there is a lack of oxygen dissolved in the water, fish die. Plant seeds are often blown by the wind into unfavorable habitats and do not germinate.
polar willow
In the tundra, trees are represented by dwarf forms, although they do not experience competition from other plants. Dwarf growth in in this case is a reflection of adaptations to temperature and humidity conditions. The winners in the fight are the most viable individuals (their physiological processes and metabolism proceed more efficiently).
Seasonal hibernation - adaptation to lack of nutrition in winter
Coexistence (flock) makes it easier to endure the harsh conditions of lack of food
Desert plants fight drought (more precisely, adapt to conditions of lack of moisture) by increasing the length of the roots and reducing the area of evaporation of the ground part, storing water in the stem and leaves
Unlike many species of insects that live alone, honey bees They do not hibernate during the winter. But due to the cold, they are unable to fly out of the nest, so they are able to retain excrement in the intestines for a very long period.
With the onset of cold weather, bees gather into a spherical mass, this allows them to collectively maintain the necessary temperature to maintain vital functions. In the middle of such a club the temperature does not drop below 14o. By coming into close contact with each other, the bees warm up. They also produce heat as a result of movement in the club: changing places, bees from the periphery move to the center of the club and vice versa.
The result of the fight against unfavorable environmental conditions is the survival of the most adapted forms in extreme or changed conditions.
The struggle for existence is an important and integral part of life on earth. Along with natural selection and hereditary variability, it is one of the driving factors of evolution.
Individuals of different species often require similar living conditions, even despite significant differences in organization. As a result, rivalry arises between them. What is interspecific struggle, examples of this phenomenon and its significance for evolutionary processes, we will consider in our article.
Driving forces of evolution
Over the entire period of views, there were many opinions about this process. At the moment there are three main ones. This is hereditary variability, on the basis of which useful traits are fixed in the genotype, the struggle for existence and its consequence - natural selection. The essence of these processes is simple. In nature, individuals fight for the best conditions of existence, as a result of which the fittest of them survive. Their useful characteristics and their changes are fixed in the genetic apparatus and are inherited.
for existence
The struggle for existence can occur between individuals of the same species. For example, during the mating season, deer compete in the loudness of the rut, attracting as many females as possible.
For existence, examples of which we will consider, arises when distribution areas or trophic needs intersect. Thus, swallows and starlings prefer the same types of insects as food. As a result, trophic competition arises.
There is another type of struggle - against unfavorable conditions. Its result is the appearance of various adaptive devices in organisms. Thus, plants in arid areas have long roots and reduced leaves, like tumbleweeds. Primroses survive the hot period thanks to underground modification shoot - onion.
Interspecies struggle: examples from the animal kingdom
As a result of competition of this type, certain relationships often arise between individuals of different systematic groups. Thus, the basis of the relationship between predator and prey is the interspecific struggle for existence. Examples of it are especially common among animal representatives. It is clearly expressed if several species claim one object.
Thus, a hare in the forest is a desired victim of a wolf, hawk, fox, marten and owl. Most often, there is no open struggle between predators. It happens indirectly. As a result, the “hunter” will win, who has the most advanced structural features for an effective attack. This is fast running or flying, sharp and powerful teeth and claws.
Interspecies fight, examples of which were given, on the one hand, leads to the death of weak individuals. On the other hand, it inevitably entails progress. The prey improves its methods of hiding, and the predator improves its methods of attack.
Interspecific struggle: examples from the plant kingdom
Plants of different species also compete with each other, and more intensely than animals. This is explained by the fact that all autotrophs require the same conditions to survive. These include the presence of sunlight, moisture, fertile soil. In this case, interspecies struggle begins.
Examples of such relationships are the bright color of the corollas, the intensity of the aroma, and the taste of nectar of flowers of different species. It is these signs that attract insects. In those plant species that are inferior to others, the pollination process will not occur and fruits and seeds will not form. This will inevitably lead to the extinction of the species.
The presence of thorns in hawthorn, barberry and rose hips is also the result of interspecific struggle. For a long time bright and delicious fruits These plants were eaten by animals. In the course of evolution, those specimens survived whose small roughness on the shoots turned into pronounced thorns.
Fight for territory
There is also interspecific struggle for the growing territory. Examples of it are most pronounced in artificial ecosystems. Without human intervention, cultivated plants are quickly replaced by weeds. This happens because the former develop under the condition of systematic care: watering, loosening the soil, etc. And weeds have a number of adaptations that allow them to grow actively in the most unfavorable conditions.
For example, the well-known wheatgrass has rhizomes. This underground modification of the shoot consists of elongated internodes with bundles of adventitious roots. By getting rid of the leaves, which are particularly tough, the plant itself remains unharmed and sprouts shoots again.
The consequence for existence is natural selection. As a result, only the strongest remain viable. The struggle among individuals of different systematic groups leads to increased intraspecific competition. All this inevitably entails progressive evolutionary changes.
· Observed in all cases when individuals of a population find themselves in extreme physical conditions (excessive heat, drought, severe winter, excess humidity, infertile soils, harsh living conditions in polar and high mountain regions, natural disasters, etc.)
· Exacerbates intra- and interspecific struggle for existence
· The result is survival in extreme conditions of the fittest forms
v Examples in animals: changes in color and thickness of fur in winter, hibernation
Human exploitation of complex relationships between organisms
v Crop rotation with the correct alternation of crops in the fields, taking into account their relationship to soil, water, pests, diseases, etc.
v Artificial planting of forests with the introduction of mycorrhiza (fungal hyphae) into the soil
v Artificial breeding of highly productive fish in reservoirs (freed from predatory and low-value fish)
v Creation of hunting farms (regulation of the number of predators)
v Treatment and prevention of human infectious diseases (use of antibiotics and phytoncides produced by plants and microorganisms)
v Increasing pollination efficiency by attracting pollinating insects
Synthetic theory of evolution (STE): basic principles
· The main problem of STE , like any other evolutionary theory - identification of factors (driving forces) and mechanisms for developing adaptations(set out in D. Huxley's Evolution: A Modern Synthesis, 1942)
· Founders : D. Huxley, S. Wright, N. I. Vavilov, N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky, I. I. Shmalgauzen, S. Filipchenko, E. Mayr, D. Simpson, S.S. Chetverikov
Basic provisions of the STE(A. A. Lyubishchev and N. N. Vorontsov, 1999)
1. Elementary evolutionary material - hereditary changes (mutations and genetic recombinations)
· mutations are the material for driving natural selection
· genetic recombinations are the material for stabilizing natural selection
hereditary variability is continuous, unlimited and random
evolution based on random events is called tychogenesis (L. S. Berg, 1922)
2. Elementary evolutionary structure (unit of evolution) – population
· according to Charles Darwin, this is an individual, but the existence of an individual is short-lived and subject to random death, while populations exist for thousands of generations, which guarantees the necessary duration of the evolutionary process
3. The factors of evolution are migration (gene flow), isolation, population waves and “genetic drift” - genetic-automatic processes
· migration– exchange of genes between populations, ensuring the unification of relatively isolated gene pools of the population into a single gene pool of the species (integrity of the species) and panmixia – free, random crossing
· insulation– a system of barriers that prevents the exchange of genes between gene pools of populations (migration), leading to inbreeding and the realization of a reserve of hereditary variability
· population waves– periodic (annual reproduction) and non-periodic (natural disasters) sharp fluctuations population size (S. S. Chetverikov)
· genetic drift– rapid random changes in allele frequencies from 100% of their concentration to complete disappearance, not associated with the action of natural selection, carried out in small populations (R. Wright, V. N. Dubinin)
· all factors of evolution are undirected (multidirectional), i.e., they are capable of either slowing down or stopping evolution, or accelerating it
4. The main factor of evolution (the main driving force) is natural selection
· the only directional factor of evolution (always has an adaptive direction)
· ensures the selection and reproduction of small, random adaptive mutations - selectogenesis
5. An elementary evolutionary phenomenon is a persistent, directed, adaptive change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in the gene pool of a population (genetic structure of the population) under the influence of natural selection
6. Evolution is divergent , i.e. one taxon can become the ancestor of several daughter taxa
· all real taxa have a single root, monophyletic origin, i.e. have one common ancestor ( monophyletism theory)
7. The formation of new species (microevolution) occurs in a phyletic, divergent and symbiogenic way
· phyletic speciation– gradual transformation of one type into another (type A – viewB)
· hybrid speciation – merger two types into one (type A + type B = type C)
· divergent speciation– formation of several new ones from one species (type A – types B, C, D)
8. Species are characterized by criteria that ensure reproductive isolation (non-crossbreeding) between them: morphological, physiological, genetic, biochemical, environmental, geographical And ethological (only in animals) (see . topic "Species Criteria")
· species criteria are not applicable to species without sexual process (agamic, parthenogenetic, etc.)
9. The species has a complex intraspecific hierarchical structure (is polytypic in nature)
· intraspecific structures: dem – population – subspecies
· intraspecific structures differ morphologically, physiologically and genetically, but are not reproductively isolated, i.e. they freely interbreed
11. All signs of organisms are adaptive in nature and arose in the process of adaptation genesis (evolution)
12. Evolution is continuous, unpredictable and irreversible
· Evolution is gradual (gradualistic) in nature and is an extremely long, historical process
· The synthetic theory of evolution creatively integrates data from the natural sciences, accumulated, comprehended and interpreted from the post-war period to the 60s of the 20th century (the so-called pre-molecular era of the development of biology)
· Discoveries of molecular biology, genetics, fine ultrastructure of the cell, successes in selection and biotechnology, microbiology and virology, biochemistry and enzymology, cloning, improvement of research technology, the latest achievements of many other sciences have created the scientific basis and prerequisites for a new (third) synthesis of data in the sense of their evolutionary interpretation.
End of work -
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Essence of Life
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All topics in this section:
Mutation process and reserve of hereditary variability
· A continuous mutation process occurs in the gene pool of populations under the influence of mutagenic factors · Recessive alleles mutate more often (encode a phase less resistant to the action of mutagenic
Allele and genotype frequency (genetic structure of the population)
Genetic structure of a population - the ratio of allele frequencies (A and a) and genotypes (AA, Aa, aa) in the gene pool of the population Allele frequency
Cytoplasmic inheritance
· There are data that are incomprehensible from the point of view of the chromosomal theory of heredity of A. Weissman and T. Morgan (i.e., exclusively nuclear localization of genes) · Cytoplasm is involved in the regeneration
Plasmogens of mitochondria
· One myotochondrion contains 4 - 5 circular DNA molecules about 15,000 nucleotide pairs long · Contains genes for: - synthesis of tRNA, rRNA and ribosomal proteins, some aero enzymes
Plasmids
· Plasmids are very short, autonomously replicating circular fragments of bacterial DNA molecules that provide non-chromosomal transmission of hereditary information
Variability
Variability is the common property of all organisms to acquire structural and functional differences from their ancestors.
Mutational variability
Mutations are qualitative or quantitative DNA of the body's cells, leading to changes in their genetic apparatus (genotype) Mutation theory of creation
Causes of mutations
Mutagenic factors (mutagens) - substances and influences that can induce a mutation effect (any factors of the external and internal environment that m
Mutation frequency
· The frequency of mutation of individual genes varies widely and depends on the state of the organism and the stage of ontogenesis (usually increases with age). On average, each gene mutates once every 40 thousand years
Gene mutations (point, true)
The reason is a change in the chemical structure of the gene (violation of the nucleotide sequence in DNA: * gene insertions of a pair or several nucleotides
Chromosomal mutations (chromosomal rearrangements, aberrations)
Causes - caused by significant changes in the structure of chromosomes (redistribution of the hereditary material of chromosomes) In all cases, they arise as a result of
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is a multiple increase in the number of chromosomes in a cell (the haploid set of chromosomes -n is repeated not 2 times, but many times - up to 10 -1
The meaning of polyploidy
1. Polyploidy in plants is characterized by an increase in the size of cells, vegetative and generative organs - leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, roots, etc. , y
Aneuploidy (heteroploidy)
Aneuploidy (heteroploidy) - a change in the number of individual chromosomes that is not a multiple of the haploid set (in this case, one or more chromosomes from a homologous pair is normal
Somatic mutations
Somatic mutations - mutations that occur in the somatic cells of the body · There are gene, chromosomal and genomic somatic mutations
The law of homological series in hereditary variability
· Discovered by N.I. Vavilov based on the study of wild and cultivated flora of five continents 5. The mutation process in genetically close species and genera proceeds in parallel, in
Combinative variability
Combinative variability - variability that arises as a result of the natural recombination of alleles in the genotypes of descendants due to sexual reproduction
Phenotypic variability (modifying or non-hereditary)
Modification variability - evolutionarily fixed adaptive reactions of the organism to changes in the external environment without changing the genotype
The value of modification variability
1. most modifications have adaptive significance and contribute to the body’s adaptation to changes in the external environment 2. can cause negative changes - morphoses
Statistical patterns of modification variability
· Modifications of an individual characteristic or property, measured quantitatively, form a continuous series (variation series); it cannot be built according to an unmeasurable attribute or attribute that is
Variation distribution curve of modifications in the variation series
V - variants of the trait P - frequency of occurrence of variants of the trait Mo - mode, or most
Differences in the manifestation of mutations and modifications
Mutational (genotypic) variability Modification (phenotypic) variability 1. Associated with changes in genotype and karyotype
Features of humans as objects of genetic research
1. Targeted selection of parental pairs and experimental marriages are impossible (impossibility of experimental crossing) 2. Slow generation change, occurring on average every
Methods for studying human genetics
Genealogical method · The method is based on the compilation and analysis of pedigrees (introduced into science at the end of the 19th century by F. Galton); the essence of the method is to trace us
Twin method
· The method consists of studying the patterns of inheritance of traits in monozygotic and fraternal twins (the birth rate of twins is one case per 84 newborns)
Cytogenetic method
· Consists of visual examination of mitotic metaphase chromosomes under a microscope · Based on the method of differential staining of chromosomes (T. Kasperson,
Dermatoglyphics method
· Based on the study of the skin relief on the fingers, palms and plantar surfaces of the feet (there are epidermal projections - ridges that form complex patterns), this feature is inherited
Population - statistical method
· Based on statistical (mathematical) processing of data on inheritance in large groups of the population (populations - groups differing in nationality, religion, race, profession
Somatic cell hybridization method
· Based on the reproduction of somatic cells of organs and tissues outside the body in sterile nutrient media (cells are most often obtained from skin, bone marrow, blood, embryos, tumors) and
Simulation method
· The theoretical basis for biological modeling in genetics is provided by the law of homological series of hereditary variability N.I. Vavilova · For modeling certain
Genetics and medicine (medical genetics)
· Study the causes, diagnostic signs, possibilities of rehabilitation and prevention of hereditary human diseases (monitoring of genetic abnormalities)
Chromosomal diseases
· The reason is a change in the number (genomic mutations) or structure of chromosomes (chromosomal mutations) of the karyotype of the germ cells of the parents (anomalies can occur at different
Polysomy on sex chromosomes
Trisomy - X (Triplo X syndrome); Karyotype (47, XXX) · Known in women; frequency of syndrome 1: 700 (0.1%) N
Hereditary diseases of gene mutations
· Cause - gene (point) mutations (changes in the nucleotide composition of a gene - insertions, substitutions, deletions, transfers of one or more nucleotides; the exact number of genes in humans is unknown
Diseases controlled by genes located on the X or Y chromosome
Hemophilia - blood incoagulability Hypophosphatemia - loss of phosphorus and calcium deficiency in the body, softening of bones Muscular dystrophy - structural disorders
Genotypic level of prevention
1. Search and use of antimutagenic protective substances Antimutagens (protectors) - compounds that neutralize a mutagen before its reaction with a DNA molecule or remove it
Treatment of hereditary diseases
1. Symptomatic and pathogenetic - impact on the symptoms of the disease (the genetic defect is preserved and passed on to offspring) n dietitian
Gene interaction
Heredity is a set of genetic mechanisms that ensure the preservation and transmission of the structural and functional organization of a species in a series of generations from ancestors
Interaction of allelic genes (one allelic pair)
· There are five types of allelic interactions: 1. Complete dominance 2. Incomplete dominance 3. Overdominance 4. Codominance
Complementarity
Complementarity is the phenomenon of interaction of several non-allelic dominant genes, leading to the emergence of a new trait that is absent in both parents
Polymerism
Polymerism is the interaction of non-allelic genes, in which the development of one trait occurs only under the influence of several non-allelic dominant genes (polygene
Pleiotropy (multiple gene action)
Pleiotropy is the phenomenon of the influence of one gene on the development of several traits. The reason for the pleiotropic influence of a gene is in the action of the primary product of this
Breeding Basics
Selection (lat. selektio - selection) - science and branch of agriculture. production, developing theory and methods for creating new and improving existing varieties plants, animal breeds
Domestication as the first stage of selection
· Cultivated plants and domestic animals descended from wild ancestors; this process is called domestication or domestication The driving force of domestication is the
Centers of origin and diversity of cultivated plants (according to N. I. Vavilov)
Center name Geographical position Motherland cultivated plants
Artificial selection (selection of parental pairs)
· Two types of artificial selection are known: mass and individual. Mass selection is the selection, preservation and use for reproduction of organisms that have
Hybridization (crossing)
· Allows you to combine certain hereditary characteristics in one organism, as well as get rid of undesirable properties · Various crossing systems are used in selection
Inbreeding (inbreeding)
Inbreeding is the crossing of individuals that have a close degree of relationship: brother - sister, parents - offspring (in plants, the closest form of inbreeding occurs when
Unrelated crossing (outbreeding)
· When crossing unrelated individuals, harmful recessive mutations that are in a homozygous state become heterozygous and do not have a negative effect on the viability of the organism
Heterosis
Heterosis (hybrid vigor) is the phenomenon of a sharp increase in the viability and productivity of first-generation hybrids during unrelated crossing (interbreeding).
Induced (artificial) mutagenesis
· The frequency of mutations increases sharply when exposed to mutagens (ionizing radiation, chemicals, extreme environmental conditions, etc.) · Application
Interline hybridization in plants
· Consists of crossing pure (inbred) lines obtained as a result of long-term forced self-pollination of cross-pollinating plants in order to obtain maxima
Vegetative propagation of somatic mutations in plants
· The method is based on the isolation and selection of useful somatic mutations for economic traits in the best old varieties (possible only in plant breeding)
Methods of selection and genetic work I. V. Michurina
1. Systematically distant hybridization a) interspecific: Vladimir cherry x Winkler cherry = Beauty of the North cherry (winter hardiness) b) intergeneric
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is a phenomenon of a multiple of the basic number (n) increase in the number of chromosomes in the somatic cells of the body (the mechanism of formation of polyploids and
Cell engineering
· Cultivation of individual cells or tissues on artificial sterile nutrient media containing amino acids, hormones, mineral salts and other nutritional components (
Chromosome engineering
· The method is based on the possibility of replacing or adding new individual chromosomes in plants · It is possible to decrease or increase the number of chromosomes in any homologous pair - aneuploidy
Animal breeding
· It has a number of features compared to plant selection that objectively make it difficult to carry out: 1. Typically only sexual reproduction is typical (absence of vegetative
Domestication
· Began about 10 - 5 thousand ago in the Neolithic era (weakened the effect of stabilizing natural selection, which led to an increase in hereditary variability and increased selection efficiency
Crossing (hybridization)
· There are two methods of crossing: related (inbreeding) and unrelated (outbreeding) · When selecting a pair, the pedigrees of each manufacturer are taken into account (stud books, teaching
Unrelated crossing (outbreeding)
· Can be intrabreed and interbreed, interspecific or intergeneric (systematically distant hybridization) · Accompanied by the effect of heterosis of F1 hybrids
Checking the breeding qualities of sires by offspring
· There are economic traits that appear only in females (egg production, milk production) · Males participate in the formation of these traits in daughters (it is necessary to check males for c
Selection of microorganisms
· Microorganisms (prokaryotes - bacteria, blue-green algae; eukaryotes - unicellular algae, fungi, protozoa) - widely used in industry, agriculture, medicine
Stages of microorganism selection
I. Search for natural strains capable of synthesizing products necessary for humans II. Isolation of a pure natural strain (occurs in the process of repeated subculture
Objectives of biotechnology
1. Obtaining feed and food protein from cheap natural raw materials and industrial waste (the basis for solving the food problem) 2. Obtaining a sufficient amount
Products of microbiological synthesis
q Feed and food protein q Enzymes (widely used in food, alcohol, brewing, wine, meat, fish, leather, textile, etc.
Stages of the technological process of microbiological synthesis
Stage I – obtaining a pure culture of microorganisms containing only organisms of one species or strain Each species is stored in a separate tube and is sent to production and
Genetic (genetic) engineering
Genetic engineering is a field of molecular biology and biotechnology that deals with the creation and cloning of new genetic structures (recombinant DNA) and organisms with specified characteristics.
Stages of obtaining recombinant (hybrid) DNA molecules
1. Obtaining the initial genetic material - a gene encoding the protein (trait) of interest · The required gene can be obtained in two ways: artificial synthesis or extraction
Achievements of genetic engineering
· The introduction of eukaryotic genes into bacteria is used for the microbiological synthesis of biologically active substances, which in nature are synthesized only by the cells of higher organisms · Synthesis
Problems and prospects of genetic engineering
· Studying the molecular basis of hereditary diseases and developing new methods for their treatment, finding methods for correcting damage to individual genes · Increasing the body's resistance
Chromosome engineering in plants
· It consists in the possibility of biotechnological replacement of individual chromosomes in plant gametes or the addition of new ones · In the cells of each diploid organism there are pairs of homologous chromosomes
Cell and tissue culture method
· The method involves growing individual cells, pieces of tissue or organs outside the body under artificial conditions on strictly sterile nutrient media with constant physico-chemical
Clonal micropropagation of plants
· Cultivation of plant cells is relatively simple, the media is simple and cheap, and cell culture is unpretentious · The method of plant cell culture is that an individual cell or
Hybridization of somatic cells (somatic hybridization) in plants
· Protoplasts of plant cells without rigid cell walls can merge with each other, forming a hybrid cell that has characteristics of both parents · Makes it possible to obtain
Cell engineering in animals
Method of hormonal superovulation and embryo transfer Isolation of dozens of eggs per year from the best cows using the method of hormonal inductive polyovulation (called
Hybridization of somatic cells in animals
· Somatic cells contain the entire volume of genetic information · Somatic cells for cultivation and subsequent hybridization in humans are obtained from the skin, which
Preparation of monoclonal antibodies
· In response to the introduction of an antigen (bacteria, viruses, red blood cells, etc.), the body produces specific antibodies with the help of B lymphocytes, which are proteins called imm
Environmental biotechnology
· Water purification by creating treatment facilities using biological methods q Oxidation Wastewater on biological filters q Disposal of organic and
Bioenergy
Bioenergy is a branch of biotechnology associated with obtaining energy from biomass using microorganisms One of effective methods obtaining energy from biomes
Bioconversion
Bioconversion is the transformation of substances formed as a result of metabolism into structurally related compounds under the influence of microorganisms. The purpose of bioconversion is
Engineering enzymology
Engineering enzymology is a field of biotechnology that uses enzymes in the production of specified substances · The central method of engineering enzymology is immobilization
Biogeotechnology
Biogeotechnology - the use of geochemical activity of microorganisms in the mining industry (ore, oil, coal) · With the help of micro-organisms
Boundaries of the biosphere
· Determined by a complex of factors; The general conditions for the existence of living organisms include: 1. the presence of liquid water 2. the presence of a number of biogenic elements (macro- and microelements
Properties of living matter
1. Contain a huge supply of energy capable of producing work 2. The speed of chemical reactions in living matter is millions of times faster than usual due to the participation of enzymes
Functions of living matter
· Performed by living matter in the process of vital activity and biochemical transformations of substances in metabolic reactions 1. Energy – transformation and assimilation by living things
Land biomass
· The continental part of the biosphere - land occupies 29% (148 million km2) · The heterogeneity of land is expressed by the presence of latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonality
Soil biomass
· Soil is a mixture of decomposed organic and weathered minerals; mineral composition soil includes silica (up to 50%), alumina (up to 25%), iron oxide, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus
Biomass of the World Ocean
· The area of the World Ocean (Earth's hydrosphere) occupies 72.2% of the entire surface of the Earth · Water has special properties that are important for the life of organisms - high heat capacity and thermal conductivity
Biological (biotic, biogenic, biogeochemical cycle) cycle of substances
Biotic cycle of substances is a continuous, planetary, relatively cyclical, uneven in time and space, regular distribution of substances
Biogeochemical cycles of individual chemical elements
· Biogenic elements circulate in the biosphere, i.e. they perform closed biogeochemical cycles that function under the influence of biological (life activity) and geological
Nitrogen cycle
· Source of N2 – molecular, gaseous, atmospheric nitrogen (not absorbed by most living organisms, because it is chemically inert; plants can only absorb nitrogen bound
Carbon cycle
· The main source of carbon is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and water · The carbon cycle is carried out through the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration · The cycle begins with
The water cycle
· Carried out at the expense of solar energy· Regulated by living organisms: 1. absorption and evaporation by plants 2. photolysis in the process of photosynthesis (decomposition
Sulfur cycle
· Sulfur is a biogenic element of living matter; found in proteins as amino acids (up to 2.5%), part of vitamins, glycosides, coenzymes, found in vegetable essential oils
Flow of energy in the biosphere
· The source of energy in the biosphere is continuous electromagnetic radiation from the sun and radioactive energy q 42% of solar energy is reflected from clouds, the atmosphere of dust and the surface of the Earth in
The emergence and evolution of the biosphere
· Living matter, and with it the biosphere, appeared on Earth as a result of the emergence of life in the process of chemical evolution about 3.5 billion years ago, which led to the formation of organic substances
Noosphere
Noosphere (literally, sphere of mind) is the highest stage of development of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and formation of civilized humanity in it, when its mind
Signs of the modern noosphere
1. An increasing amount of extracted lithosphere materials - an increase in the development of mineral deposits (now it exceeds 100 billion tons per year) 2. Massive consumption
Human influence on the biosphere
· The current state of the noosphere is characterized by the ever-increasing prospect of an ecological crisis, many aspects of which are already fully manifested, creating a real threat to existence
Energy production
q The construction of hydroelectric power stations and the creation of reservoirs causes the flooding of large areas and the displacement of people, rising groundwater levels, soil erosion and waterlogging, landslides, loss of arable land
Food production. Soil depletion and pollution, reduction in fertile soil area
q Arable lands occupy 10% of the Earth’s surface (1.2 billion hectares) q The reason is overexploitation, imperfect agricultural production: water and wind erosion and the formation of ravines,
Declining natural biodiversity
q Economic activity humans in nature is accompanied by a change in the number of animal and plant species, the extinction of entire taxa, and a decrease in the diversity of living things q Currently
Acid precipitation
q Increased acidity of rain, snow, fog due to the release of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere from fuel combustion q Acid precipitation reduces crop yields and destroys natural vegetation
Ways to solve environmental problems
· Man will continue to exploit the resources of the biosphere on an ever-increasing scale, since this exploitation is an indispensable and main condition for the very existence of h
Sustainable consumption and management of natural resources
q Maximum complete and comprehensive extraction of all minerals from deposits (due to imperfect extraction technology, only 30-50% of reserves are extracted from oil deposits q Rec
Ecological strategy for agricultural development
q Strategic direction - increasing productivity to provide food for a growing population without increasing the area under cultivation q Increasing the yield of agricultural crops without negative impacts
Properties of living matter
1. Unity of the elemental chemical composition(98% consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen) 2. Unity of biochemical composition - all living organs
Hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth
· There are two alternative concepts about the possibility of the origin of life on Earth: q abiogenesis – the emergence of living organisms from inorganic substances
Stages of development of the Earth (chemical prerequisites for the emergence of life)
1. Stellar stage of the history of the Earth q The geological history of the Earth began more than 6 times ago. years ago, when the Earth was a hot place over 1000
The emergence of the process of self-reproduction of molecules (biogenic matrix synthesis of biopolymers)
1. Occurred as a result of the interaction of coacervates with nucleic acids 2. All necessary components of the process of biogenic matrix synthesis: - enzymes - proteins - etc.
Prerequisites for the emergence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
Socio-economic prerequisites 1. In the first half of the 19th century. England has become one of the most economically developed countries in the world with high level
· Set forth in Charles Darwin’s book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life,” which was published
Variability
Justification of the variability of species · To substantiate the position on the variability of living beings, Charles Darwin used common
Correlative variability
· A change in the structure or function of one part of the body causes a coordinated change in another or others, since the body is an integral system, the individual parts of which are closely interconnected
The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin
1. All species of living beings inhabiting the Earth were never created by anyone, but arose naturally 2. Having arisen naturally, species slowly and gradually
Development of ideas about the species
· Aristotle - used the concept of species when describing animals, which had no scientific content and was used as a logical concept · D. Ray
Species criteria (signs of species identification)
· The importance of species criteria in science and practice - determination of the species identity of individuals (species identification) I. Morphological - similarity of morphological inheritances
Population types
1. Panmictic - consist of individuals that reproduce sexually and cross-fertilize.
2. Clonal - from individuals that reproduce only without
Mutation process
· Spontaneous changes in the hereditary material of germ cells in the form of gene, chromosomal and genomic mutations occur constantly throughout the entire period of life under the influence of mutations
Insulation
Isolation - stopping the flow of genes from population to population (limiting the exchange of genetic information between populations) The meaning of isolation as a fa
· Not directly related to the action of natural selection, is a consequence of external factors · Leads to a sharp decrease or cessation of migration of individuals from other populations
Environmental insulation
· Arises on the basis of ecological differences in the existence of different populations (different populations occupy different ecological niches) v For example, trout of Lake Sevan p
Secondary isolation (biological, reproductive)
· Is crucial in the formation of reproductive isolation · Arises as a result of intraspecific differences in organisms · Arose as a result of evolution · Has two iso
Migrations
Migration is the movement of individuals (seeds, pollen, spores) and their characteristic alleles between populations, leading to changes in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in their gene pools Common with
Population waves
Population waves (“waves of life”) - periodic and non-periodic sharp fluctuations in the number of individuals in a population under the influence of natural causes (S.S.
The meaning of population waves
1. Leads to an undirected and sharp change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in the gene pool of populations (random survival of individuals during the wintering period can increase the concentration of this mutation by 1000 r
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes)
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes) is a random, non-directional change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes, not caused by the action of natural selection.
Result of genetic drift (for small populations)
1. Causes the loss (p = 0) or fixation (p = 1) of alleles in a homozygous state in all members of the population, regardless of their adaptive value - homozygotization of individuals
Natural selection is the guiding factor of evolution
Natural selection is the process of preferential (selective, selective) survival and reproduction of the fittest individuals and non-survival or non-reproduction
The struggle for existence Forms of natural selection
Driving selection (Described by Charles Darwin, modern teaching developed by D. Simpson, English) Driving selection - selection in
Stabilizing selection
· The theory of stabilizing selection was developed by Russian academician. I. I. Shmagauzen (1946) Stabilizing selection - selection operating in stable
Other forms of natural selection
Individual selection - selective survival and reproduction of individual individuals that have an advantage in the struggle for existence and the elimination of others
Main features of natural and artificial selection
Natural selection Artificial selection 1. Arose with the emergence of life on Earth (about 3 billion years ago) 1. Arose in non-
General characteristics of natural and artificial selection
1. Initial (elementary) material - individual characteristics of the organism (hereditary changes - mutations) 2. Are carried out according to the phenotype 3. Elementary structure - populations
The struggle for existence is the most important factor in evolution
The struggle for existence is a complex of relationships between an organism and abiotic (physical living conditions) and biotic (relationships with other living organisms) factors
Reproduction intensity
v One individual roundworm produces 200 thousand eggs per day; the gray rat gives birth to 5 litters per year of 8 pups, which become sexually mature at three months of age; the offspring of one daphnia reaches
Interspecies struggle for existence
· Occurs between individuals of populations of different species · Less acute than intraspecific, but its intensity increases if different species occupy similar ecological niches and have
Major discoveries in the field of biology after the creation of STE
1. Discovery of the hierarchical structures of DNA and protein, including the secondary structure of DNA - the double helix and its nucleoprotein nature 2. Deciphering the genetic code (its triplet structure
Signs of the endocrine system organs
1. They have relatively small in size(fractions or several grams) 2. Anatomically unrelated to each other 3. Synthesize hormones 4. Have an abundant circulatory network
Characteristics (signs) of hormones
1. Formed in the endocrine glands (neurohormones can be synthesized in neurosecretory cells) 2. High biological activity - the ability to quickly and strongly change the int
Chemical nature of hormones
1. Peptides and simple proteins (insulin, somatotropin, tropic hormones of the adenohypophysis, calcitonin, glucagon, vasopressin, oxytocin, hypothalamic hormones) 2. Complex proteins - thyrotropin, lute
Hormones of the middle (intermediate) lobe
Melanotropic hormone (melanotropin) - exchange of pigments (melanin) in the integumentary tissues Hormones of the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) - oxytrcin, vasopressin
Thyroid hormones (thyroxine, triiodothyronine)
The composition of thyroid hormones certainly includes iodine and the amino acid tyrosine (0.3 mg of iodine is released daily as part of the hormones, therefore a person should receive daily with food and water
Hypothyroidism (hypothyroidism)
The cause of hypotherosis is a chronic deficiency of iodine in food and water. The lack of hormone secretion is compensated by the proliferation of gland tissue and a significant increase in its volume
Cortical hormones (mineralkorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones)
The cortical layer is formed from epithelial tissue and consists of three zones: glomerular, fascicular and reticular, having different morphologies and functions. Hormones are classified as steroids - corticosteroids
Adrenal medulla hormones (adrenaline, norepinephrine)
- The medulla consists of special chromaffin cells that stain yellow, (these same cells are located in the aorta, the branching site of the carotid artery and in the sympathetic nodes; they all make up
Pancreatic hormones (insulin, glucagon, somatostatin)
Insulin (secreted by beta cells (insulocytes), is the simplest protein) Functions: 1. Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism (the only sugar reduction
Testosterone
Functions: 1. Development of secondary sexual characteristics (body proportions, muscles, beard growth, body hair, mental characteristics of a man, etc.) 2. Growth and development of reproductive organs
Ovaries
1. Paired organs (size about 4 cm, weight 6-8 g), located in the pelvis, on both sides of the uterus 2. Consist of a large number (300-400 thousand) so-called. follicles - structure
Estradiol
Functions: 1. Development of female genital organs: oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary glands 2. Formation of secondary sexual characteristics of the female sex (physique, figure, fat deposition, etc.)
Endocrine glands (endocrine system) and their hormones
Endocrine glands Hormones Functions Pituitary gland: - anterior lobe: adenohypophysis - middle lobe - posterior
Reflex. Reflex arc
Reflex is the body’s response to irritation (change) of the external and internal environment, carried out with the participation of the nervous system (the main form of activity
Feedback Mechanism
· The reflex arc does not end with the body’s response to stimulation (the work of the effector). All tissues and organs have their own receptors and afferent nerve pathways that connect to the senses.
Spinal cord
1. The most ancient part of the central nervous system of vertebrates (it first appears in cephalochordates - the lancelet) 2. During embryogenesis, it develops from the neural tube 3. It is located in the bone
Skeletal-motor reflexes
1. Knee reflex (the center is localized in the lumbar segment); rudimentary reflex from animal ancestors 2. Achilles reflex (in the lumbar segment) 3. Plantar reflex (with
Conductor function
· The spinal cord has a two-way connection with the brain (stem and cerebral cortex); through the spinal cord, the brain is connected to the receptors and executive organs of the body
Brain
· The brain and spinal cord develop in the embryo from the outer germ layer - ectoderm · Located in the cavity of the brain skull · Covered (like the spinal cord) with three layers
Medulla
2. During embryogenesis, it develops from the fifth medullary vesicle of the neural tube of the embryo 3. It is a continuation of the spinal cord (the lower boundary between them is the place where the root emerges
Reflex function
1. Protective reflexes: coughing, sneezing, blinking, vomiting, lacrimation 2. Food reflexes: sucking, swallowing, secretion of juice from the digestive glands, motility and peristalsis
Midbrain
1. In the process of embryogenesis from the third medullary vesicle of the neural tube of the embryo 2. Covered with white matter, gray matter inside in the form of nuclei 3. Has the following structural components
Functions of the midbrain (reflex and conduction)
I. Reflex function (all reflexes are innate, unconditioned) 1. Regulation of muscle tone when moving, walking, standing 2. Orienting reflex
Thalamus (visual thalamus)
· Represents paired clusters of gray matter (40 pairs of nuclei), covered with a layer of white matter, inside – the third ventricle and reticular formation · All nuclei of the thalamus are afferent, sensory
Functions of the hypothalamus
1. Supreme Center nervous regulation of the cardiovascular system, permeability of blood vessels 2. Thermoregulation center 3. Regulation of water-salt balance organ
Functions of the cerebellum
· The cerebellum is connected to all parts of the central nervous system; skin receptors, proprioceptors of the vestibular and motor apparatus, subcortex and cerebral cortex · The functions of the cerebellum investigate the path
Telencephalon (cerebrum, forebrain cerebrum)
1. During embryogenesis, it develops from the first brain vesicle of the neural tube of the embryo 2. Consists of two hemispheres (right and left), separated by a deep longitudinal fissure and connected
Cerebral cortex (cloak)
1. In mammals and humans, the surface of the cortex is folded, covered with convolutions and grooves, providing an increase in surface area (in humans it is about 2200 cm2
Functions of the cerebral cortex
Study methods: 1. Electrical stimulation of individual areas (method of “implanting” electrodes into areas of the brain) 3. 2. Removal (extirpation) of individual areas
Sensory zones (regions) of the cerebral cortex
· They represent the central (cortical) sections of the analyzers; sensitive (afferent) impulses from the corresponding receptors approach them · Occupy a small part of the cortex
Functions of association zones
1. Communication between different areas of the cortex (sensory and motor) 2. Combination (integration) of all sensitive information entering the cortex with memory and emotions 3. Decisive
Features of the autonomic nervous system
1. Divided into two sections: sympathetic and parasympathetic (each of them has a central and peripheral part) 2. Does not have its own afferent (
Features of the parts of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division 1. The central ganglia are located in the lateral horns of the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal column
Functions of the autonomic nervous system
· Most organs of the body are innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (dual innervation) · Both departments exert three types of actions on the organs - vasomotor,
The influence of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic department Parasympathetic department 1. Speeds up the rhythm, increases the strength of heart contractions 2. Dilates the coronary vessels
Higher nervous activity of man
Mental mechanisms of reflection: Mental mechanisms of designing the future - sensibly
Features (signs) of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes
Unconditioned reflexes Conditioned reflexes 1. Innate specific reactions of the body (passed on by inheritance) - genetically determined
Methodology for developing (forming) conditioned reflexes
· Developed by I.P. Pavlov on dogs when studying salivation under the influence of light or sound stimuli, odors, touches, etc. (the duct of the salivary gland was brought out through a slit
Conditions for the development of conditioned reflexes
1. The indifferent stimulus must precede the unconditioned one (anticipatory action) 2. The average strength of the indifferent stimulus (with low and high strength the reflex may not form
The meaning of conditioned reflexes
1. They form the basis of learning, obtaining physical and mental skills 2. Subtle adaptation of vegetative, somatic and mental reactions to conditions with
Induction (external) braking
o Develops under the influence of an extraneous, unexpected, strong irritant from the external or internal environment v Severe hunger, full bladder, pain or sexual arousal
Extinction conditioned inhibition
· Develops when the conditioned stimulus is systematically not reinforced by the unconditioned v If the conditioned stimulus is repeated at short intervals without reinforcement
The relationship between excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex
Irradiation is the spread of excitation or inhibition processes from the source of their occurrence to other areas of the cortex. An example of irradiation of the excitation process is
Causes of sleep
· There are several hypotheses and theories of the causes of sleep: Chemical hypothesis - the cause of sleep is poisoning of brain cells with toxic waste products, image
REM (paradoxical) sleep
· Occurs after a period of slow-wave sleep and lasts 10-15 minutes; then again gives way to slow-wave sleep; repeats 4-5 times during the night Characterized by rapid
Features of human higher nervous activity
(differences from the GNI of animals) · Channels for obtaining information about factors of the external and internal environment are called signaling systems · The first and second signaling systems are distinguished
Features of higher nervous activity of humans and animals
Animal Human 1. Obtaining information about environmental factors only using the first signal system (analyzers) 2. Specific
Memory as a component of higher nervous activity
Memory is a set of mental processes that ensure the preservation, consolidation and reproduction of previous individual experience v Basic memory processes
Analyzers
· A person receives all the information about the external and internal environment of the body necessary to interact with it using the senses (sensory systems, analyzers) v The concept of analysis
Structure and functions of analyzers
· Each analyzer consists of three anatomically and functionally related sections: peripheral, conductive and central · Damage to one of the parts of the analyzer
The meaning of analyzers
1. Information to the body about the state and changes in the external and internal environment 2. The emergence of sensations and the formation on their basis of concepts and ideas about the surrounding world, i.e. e.
Choroid (middle)
· Located under the sclera, rich in blood vessels, consists of three parts: the anterior one - the iris, the middle one - the ciliary body and the posterior one - the vascular tissue itself
Features of photoreceptor cells of the retina
Rods Cones 1. Number 130 million 2. Visual pigment – rhodopsin (visual purple) 3. Maximum number per n
Lens
· Located behind the pupil, has the shape of a biconvex lens with a diameter of about 9 mm, is absolutely transparent and elastic. Covered with a transparent capsule to which the ligaments of the ciliary body are attached
Functioning of the eye
· Visual reception begins with photochemical reactions that begin in the rods and cones of the retina and consist in the disintegration of visual pigments under the influence of light quanta. Exactly this
Vision hygiene
1. Prevention of injuries (safety glasses in production with traumatic objects - dust, chemical substances, shavings, splinters, etc.) 2. Protecting the eyes from too bright light - sun, electrical
Outer ear
· Representation of the auricle and external auditory canal · Auricle - freely protruding on the surface of the head
Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
· Lies inside the pyramid of the temporal bone · Filled with air and communicates with the nasopharynx through a tube 3.5 cm long and 2 mm in diameter - the Eustachian tube Function of the Eustachians
Inner ear
· Located in the pyramid of the temporal bone · Includes a bony labyrinth, which is a complex canal structure · Inside the bones
Perception of sound vibrations
· The auricle picks up sounds and directs them to the external auditory canal. Sound waves cause vibrations of the eardrum, which are transmitted from it through the system of levers of the auditory ossicles (
Hearing hygiene
1. Prevention of injuries to the hearing organs 2. Protection of the hearing organs from excessive strength or duration of sound stimulation - the so-called. "noise pollution", especially in noisy industrial environments
Biosphere
1. Represented by cellular organelles 2. Biological mesosystems 3. Possible mutations 4. Histological method of research 5. Beginning of metabolism 6. About
“Structure of a eukaryotic cell” 9. Cell organelle containing DNA 10. Has pores 11. Performs a compartmental function in the cell 12. Function
Cell center
Test thematic digital dictation on the topic “Cell Metabolism” 1. Carried out in the cytoplasm of the cell 2. Requires specific enzymes
Thematic digital programmed dictation
on the topic “Energy metabolism” 1. Hydrolysis reactions are carried out 2. The final products are CO2 and H2 O 3. The final product is PVC 4. NAD is reduced
Oxygen stage
Thematic digital programmed dictation on the topic “Photosynthesis” 1. Photolysis of water occurs 2. Reduction occurs
“Cell metabolism: Energy metabolism. Photosynthesis. Protein biosynthesis" 1. Carried out in autotrophs 52. Transcription is carried out 2. Associated with the functioning
The main characteristics of the eukaryotic kingdoms
Plant Kingdom Animal Kingdom 1. They have three subkingdoms: – lower plants (true algae) – red algae
Features of types of artificial selection in breeding
Mass selection Individual selection 1. Many individuals with the most pronounced characteristics are allowed to reproduce
General characteristics of mass and individual selection
1. Carried out by man through artificial selection 2. K further reproduction Only individuals with the most pronounced desired trait are allowed 3. Can be multiple
“Natural selection according to Darwin” - Intraspecific struggle. Interspecies struggle. Fighting adverse conditions. Driving selection. Natural selection. Driving forces (factors) of evolution. There is hereditary variability. Heredity. The main work of Charles Darwin. Struggle for existence. 1831 - Charles Darwin goes on a trip around the world. Stages life path Ch. Darwin. Disruptive selection. Basic provisions of the evolutionary doctrine.
“The main driving forces of evolution” - Interspecific struggle. Examples of interspecific struggle. Examples of intraspecific struggle. Intraspecific struggle. Forms of natural selection. Combating unfavorable environmental conditions. The result of driving selection. Forms of the struggle for existence. Driving forces of evolution. The result of disruptive selection. Maintaining population fitness. Provides adaptation to various groups of individuals. Examples of combating adverse environmental conditions.
“Biology “Natural Selection”” - Natural selection. Lesson stages. Forms of natural selection. Driving form of selection. Earth. Final scheme. Check of knowledge. Natural selection is the result of the struggle for existence. Tasks. The purpose of the lesson. Disruptive form of selection. Problematic question. Consolidation of knowledge. Questions about Charles Darwin. Consolidating the skills to distinguish and characterize individual forms. Stabilizing form of selection.
“Struggle for existence, natural selection” - Interspecific struggle for existence. Drought in the savannah. Combating unfavorable environmental conditions. Interspecies struggle - the struggle for existence between different types. Alkaline intestinal environment. Individuals of the same species have similar needs. In nature there is a continuous struggle for existence. The first position of the theory. The driving force behind species change is natural selection. First position Second position.
“Types of natural selection” - The stock of genetic variability. Hereditary variability according to a selected trait. Association between newborn infant weight and survival. Variety of species. Stabilizing selection. Experiments on amphipods. Adaptations are an example of natural selection at work. The creative role of natural selection. An example of disruptive selection. Polymorphism. Forms of natural selection. Protective coloration of oystercatcher chicks.
“Natural selection” - Sexual. Disruptive. Stabilizing. Selection toward the mean has been found for a variety of traits. As a result, two races of rattle are formed - early and late flowering. Many examples of the action of stabilizing selection in nature have been described. Natural selection. As a result, several new forms may appear from one original one. Moving. As a result, individuals with average fertility are the most fit.
