Soil is the thin top layer of the earth's crust that gives life to plants. It's self-sufficient natural body, which is a cross between living and dead matter. In the soil, the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere interact, and the density of the planet’s living matter is maximum.
The most valuable property soil - fertility, i.e. ability to provide plants with necessary nutrients and moisture.
Soil consists of mineral particles, organic matter mainly plant origin, soil water, soil air and living organisms inhabiting it. IN different areas On Earth, soil thickness ranges from a few centimeters to 2-3 meters. The soil forms very slowly; it takes 10,000 years to completely renew its mineral part to a depth of 1 m.
The founder of modern soil science V.V. Dokuchaev believed that, like minerals, plants and animals, soils are special natural-historical bodies. They are formed under the influence of several soil-forming factors acting simultaneously.
The rocks on which soils are formed are called parent or soil-forming rocks; they serve as a source of the mineral part of the soil and determine its chemical, mineral and mechanical composition.
The thermal and water regimes of soil formation, as well as the rate of weathering of rocks, depend on the climate. Vegetation supplies organic matter to the soil and significantly affects its microclimate.
Animals and microorganisms that inhabit the soil mix and loosen it, and also accelerate the decomposition of organic matter. Depending on the relief, heat and moisture are redistributed, and chemical composition and groundwater and soil water regimes influence many soil processes.
The formation of soil is greatly influenced by human economic activity: he cultivates the land, and in order to get a good harvest, he applies fertilizers to the soil.
Soil formation begins with weathering - the destruction and crushing of rocks. The first bacteria, fungi and algae appear on the loose, moist mass. In the process of their life activity, a thin film of organic matter is formed, on which they are the first to settle. lower plants- mosses and lichens. Dying plants and animal remains are processed by microorganisms, and organic matter becomes more abundant.
Humus forms in the soil, a black layer called humus. It contains essential nutrients, necessary for plants. The more humus in the soil, the more fertile it is.
As a result of long-term processes of soil formation, the soil layer is divided into horizons - homogeneous layers with the same color, structure, structure and other characteristics. For example, in podzolic soils of mixed temperate forests, from top to bottom, the A1 horizon is usually distinguished, in which organic matter accumulates and humus is formed; horizon A2 - leaching, from which, with sufficient precipitation, some organic and mineral compounds are removed; horizon B - inwash, where relatively mobile soil formation products from the upper horizons accumulate; horizon C - soil-forming rock.
Based on the degree of expression of individual soil horizons, their thickness, and chemical composition, soil types are determined - chernozems, podzolic soils, solonchaks, etc.
For a gardener and gardener, the most important factor is the quality of the soil on his plot.
Different types differ in the following characteristics:
- structure;
- ability to pass air;
- hygroscopicity;
- heat capacity;
- density;
- acidity;
- saturation with micro- and macroelements, organic matter.
Clayey
This is earth with a high density, a weakly defined structure, contains up to 80% clay, heats up slightly and releases water. It does not allow air to pass through well, which slows down the decomposition in it. When wet, it is slippery, sticky, and plastic. From it you can roll a bar 15-18 cm long, which can then be easily rolled into a ring without cracks. Typically clay soils are acidified. The agrotechnical characteristics of clay soil can be improved gradually, over several seasons.
Important! To better warm up the beds in clayey areas, they are formed quite high, and the seeds are buried less into the ground. In the fall, before frost sets in, the soil is dug up without breaking up the lumps.
Such soils are optimized by adding:- lime to reduce acidity and improve aeration - 0.3-0.4 kg per square meter. m, introduced in the autumn;
- sand for better moisture exchange, no more than 40 kg/square meter;
- to reduce density, increase friability;
- for saturation with minerals;
- to replenish organic reserves, 1.5-2 buckets per square meter. m per year.
This type of soil must be thoroughly loosened and mulched.
and with a developed root system grow quite well on clay soils. Did you know?« Technical grade red grapes» Merlot
grows well in the clay-pebble soils of Pomerol, the smallest wine-growing region in France, province of Bordeaux.
Loamy Outwardly similar to clay, but with better Agriculture
characteristics. Loam, if you need to visualize what it is, is soil that can also be rolled into a sausage when wet and bent into a ring. A sample of loamy soil holds its shape, but will crack. The color of loam depends on the impurities and can be black, gray, brown, red and yellow.
Thanks to its neutral acidity and balanced composition (clay - 10-30%, sand and other impurities - 60-90%), loam is quite fertile and versatile, suitable for growing almost all crops. The structure of the soil has a fine-grained structure, which allows it to remain loose and allow air to pass through well. Thanks to clay admixtures, loam retains water for a long time.
- To maintain the fertility of loams, do the following:
- fertilizing crops with fertilizers;
adding manure for autumn digging.
Sandy
Light, loose, loose sandy soil contains a high percentage of sand and does not retain moisture and nutrients. TO positive properties sandstones can be attributed to high air permeability and rapid heating.
- The following grow well in this soil:
- and berry trees;
To increase crop yields, they also add
Sandstone can be cultivated by adding additives that increase viscosity: Sideration improves the mechanical structure and saturates it with organic and mineral substances.
To save resources, there is another method of organizing beds - a clay castle.
In place of the beds, a layer of clay of 5-6 cm is poured, on top of which a layer of fertile soil is applied - loam, chernozem, sandy loam soil in which the plants are sown. The clay layer will retain moisture and nutrients. If there is no fertile soil for making beds, it can be replaced with improved sandstone mixed with additives for viscosity and fertility.
Sandy loam To determine this type of soil, we also try to make a donut from wet soil. will roll into a ball, but it won’t be able to be rolled into a bar. The sand content in it is up to 90%, clay up to 20%. Another example of what kind of soils there are that do not require costly and time-consuming cultivation. The substrate is light, warms up quickly, retains heat, moisture and organic matter well, and is quite easy to process.
It is necessary to select zoned plant varieties for planting and maintain fertility:
- dosed application of mineral and organic fertilizers;
- mulching and green manure.
Limestone
Soils of this type can be light or heavy; their disadvantages are:
- poverty - low level nutrients;
- low acidity;
- rockiness;
- quick drying.
- making
- enrichment with ammonium sulfate and to increase acidity;
- mulching;
- green manure;
- application of organic fertilizers.
Peat
These soils are highly acidic, do not warm up well, and can become waterlogged.
At the same time, they are quite easy to cultivate. Improve physical and Chemical properties peaty or swampy soil allows the application of:
- sand, clay flour - to prevent them from sinking into the ground, the area is dug deeply;
- organic fertilizers -
Soil is the thin top layer of the earth's crust that gives life to plants. This is an independent natural body, which is a cross between living and dead matter. In the soil, the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere interact, and the density of the planet’s living matter is maximum. The most valuable property of soil is fertility, i.e. the ability to provide plants with the necessary nutrients and moisture - approx. Soil consists of mineral particles, organic matter mainly of plant origin, soil water, soil air and living organisms inhabiting it. In different regions of the Earth, the thickness of the soil varies from a few centimeters to 2-3 meters.
The soil forms very slowly; it takes 10,000 years to completely renew its mineral part to a depth of 1 m.
The founder of modern soil science V.V. Dokuchaev believed that, like minerals, plants and animals, soils are special natural-historical bodies. They are formed under the influence of several soil-forming factors acting simultaneously.
The rocks on which soils are formed are called parent or soil-forming rocks; they serve as a source of the mineral part of the soil and determine its chemical, mineral and mechanical composition.
The thermal and water regimes of soil formation, as well as the rate of weathering of rocks, depend on the climate. Vegetation supplies organic matter to the soil and significantly affects its microclimate. Animals and microorganisms inhabiting the soil mix and loosen it, and also accelerate the decomposition of organic residues - approx. Depending on the topography, heat and moisture are redistributed, and the chemical composition and regime of ground and soil waters affect many soil processes.
The formation of soil is greatly influenced by human economic activity: he cultivates the land, and in order to get a good harvest, he applies fertilizers to the soil.
Soil formation begins with weathering - the destruction and crushing of rocks.
The first bacteria, fungi and algae appear on the loose, moist mass. In the process of their life activity, a thin film of organic matter is formed, on which lower plants - mosses and lichens - are the first to settle. Dying plants and animal remains are processed by microorganisms, and organic matter becomes more abundant. Humus forms in the soil, a black layer called humus - approx. It contains the basic nutrients needed by plants. The more humus in the soil, the more fertile it is.
As a result of long-term processes of soil formation, the soil layer is divided into horizons - homogeneous layers with the same color, structure, structure and other characteristics. For example, in podzolic soils of mixed temperate forests, from top to bottom, the A1 horizon is usually distinguished, in which organic matter accumulates and humus is formed; horizon A2 - leaching, from which, with sufficient precipitation, some organic and mineral compounds are removed; horizon B - inwashing, where relatively mobile soil formation products from the upper horizons accumulate; horizon C - soil-forming rock.
Based on the degree of expression of individual soil horizons, their thickness, and chemical composition, soil types are determined - chernozems, podzolic soils, solonchaks, etc.
WHY ARE SOME SOILS LOOSE WHILE OTHERS ARE HARD?
The sand and clay particles that make up the soil allow moisture to pass through differently. Sand quickly absorbs water because it consists of fairly large particles that do not come into contact with each other very tightly, and water seeps out easily. The clay particles are smaller in size and are pressed so tightly together that water passes between them with difficulty.
The mechanical composition of the soil is judged by the ratio of sand and clay particles - approx. If there are more sand particles in the soil, then it is light sandy soil, and if there are many small clay particles, it is heavy clay soil. In sandy and loamy soils the ratio of sand and clay is approximately the same.
The ability of soil to break down into lumps of various shapes and sizes is called soil structure. Lumpy and granular soils are very fertile, but structureless soils, consisting of small dusty particles, do not allow air and moisture to penetrate to the roots of plants, so they are infertile.
Soil is a special natural formation formed as a result of the transformation of rocks by plants and animals, i.e. as a result of the soil-forming process. Soil has a special property - fertility; it is the main means of production in agriculture (see Soil Fertility). Unlike other means of production (for example, agricultural machines), soil not only does not lose its properties during operation, but correct use improves them, becomes more fertile.
Diagram of the structure of various soils.
Soil is a colossal eternal natural wealth, an inexhaustible source that provides humans with food, animals with feed, and industry with raw materials. It was created over centuries and millennia, and multiplying this wealth is the duty of the farmer. To use soil correctly, you need to know how it was formed, its structure, composition and properties.
The soil was formed from rocks exposed on the surface of the earth under the influence various factors. Under the influence of wind, atmospheric moisture, due to climate changes and temperature fluctuations, rocks, such as granite, gradually cracked and turned into rubble. Microorganisms settled on the rubble, feeding mainly on carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere and mineral compounds that they received from the rock. Microorganisms destroyed it with their secretions, and the chemical composition of the rock gradually changed. Then lichens and mosses settled here. Microorganisms decomposed their remains, forming humus - the main organic matter of the soil containing nutrients necessary for higher plants.
Animals and plants finally destroyed the rock, turning its top layer into soil.
Plant litter in forests and dead herbaceous vegetation, after decomposition by microorganisms, provide a lot of organic matter, increasing the thickness of the soil. Humus is partially mineralized and again, under the influence of microorganisms, turns into mineral compounds available to plants. Humus not only enriches the soil, but also forms its structure - strong lumps. Best soils, moisture-absorbing and breathable, have a finely lumpy or granular structure of lumps with a diameter of 1 to 10 mm.
The composition and properties of the soil largely depend on the composition and properties of the rock on which the soil is formed (it is called the parent rock). Since soil formation factors on our planet are not the same, soils in different climatic and vegetation zones are different (see Soil cover).
If you look at a vertical section of the soil, you can see the heterogeneous soil layers (horizons) that make up the soil profile. Their structure and power are different. Soil layers allow us to trace the gradual transformation of rock into soil.
The upper horizon (denoted by the letter A) is usually colored dark color, which depends on the humus accumulating in it. The older the soil, the thicker the humus horizon. Depending on the type of soil, the thickness of the A horizon ranges from a few centimeters (for example, in tundra soils) to 100 cm or more (in chernozems). In soils occupied by forest vegetation, an A0 horizon is also distinguished, i.e., forest litter, which lies on top of the A horizon.
In some soils, such as podzolic soils, a whitish A2 horizon is formed under the humus horizon, reminiscent of ash in color. From this horizon, humus and mineral compounds are washed out into the illuvial horizon B, where they accumulate. The B horizon is dense, often reddish-brown in color. Beneath it lies a slightly altered, humus-free mountainous (parent) rock C.
Soil consists of solid, liquid, gaseous and living parts. The solid part is mineral and organic particles. They make up 80–98% of the soil mass and consist of sand, clay, and silt particles left over from the parent rock as a result of the soil-forming process. The ratio of these particles characterizes the mechanical composition of the soil.
The liquid part of the soil, or soil solution, is water with organic and mineral compounds dissolved in it. Water content in the soil ranges from fractions of a percent to 40–60%. The liquid part is involved in supplying plants with water and dissolved nutrients.
The gaseous part, soil air, fills the pores not occupied by water. Soil air contains more carbon dioxide and less oxygen than atmospheric air, as well as methane, volatile organic compounds, etc.
The living part of the soil consists of soil microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, etc.), representatives of invertebrates (protozoa, worms, mollusks, insects and their larvae), and digging vertebrates. They live mainly in the top layer of soil, near the roots of plants, where they get their food. Some soil microorganisms can only live on roots.
The soil contains macroelements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, etc.) and microelements (boron, manganese, molybdenum, copper, zinc, etc.), which plants consume in small quantities. Their ratio determines the chemical composition of the soil. It depends on the content of elements in the parent rock, climatic factors, vegetation. The more moist the soil is, the usually poorer its upper horizons are in mineral compounds.
Of the physical properties of soil, moisture capacity, water permeability, porosity (see Water and air regimes of soil) and heat capacity (see Thermal regime of soil) are of greatest importance.
The composition and properties of soil are constantly changing under the influence of the life of organisms, climate, and human activity. When applying fertilizers, the soil is enriched with nutrients for plants and changes its physical properties. Improper exploitation of the soil can lead to disturbances of the soil cover - soil erosion, salinization, and waterlogging.
The science that studies soil is called soil science. She studies the diversity of soils on the globe, their origin, composition, properties, including fertility, distribution and rational use. Modern scientific soil science arose in Russia at the end of the 19th century. Its founder was V.V. Dokuchaev. He was the first to show that soil has a special property - fertility and consists of living and non-living parts. This is what distinguishes soil from rock. A major role in the creation of scientific soil science was played by V.V. Dokuchaev’s contemporary, P.A. Kostychev, who developed the agronomic direction in soil science. He studied the relationship between soil and plants, the processes of creating soil fertility. These studies were continued by V. R. Williams.
Soil science is especially important for agriculture. This science helps solve issues of increasing soil fertility, applying fertilizers, carrying out land reclamation, and developing agricultural techniques.
Soil is an integral part of the kingdom of nature and plays a large role in the existence of all life on our planet. It is in it that the interaction of all the shells of the Earth takes place - water, air, underground.
The most valuable characteristic of this nature education Fertility is the function of providing vegetation with moisture and essential nutrients. What is soil? What does it consist of and what is its significance for life on the globe?
What is soil?
The most complete and extensive study of the soil was carried out by the Russian geologist Vasily Dokuchaev, who discovered the most important patterns in its genesis and geographical distribution. According to his theory, soil is a special natural body that is formed due to the influence of several factors - the climatic characteristics of a particular region, the nature and age of the soil, and the vegetation growing on it.
In a more modern understanding, soil is the top layer of the planet, formed through the activity of living organisms and weathering of rocks. In different regions of the globe, the thickness of this layer ranges from a few centimeters to 2–3 meters. 
The composition of the soil may vary depending on its depth. If you dig a hole in the ground, you will notice that more fertile black soils are located on top, and below are the so-called parent rocks, from which the top layer is formed.
What is soil made of?
The soil has a heterogeneous structure and includes particles different breeds with a diameter from 0.001 millimeter to several centimeters. As for the mineralogical composition, it may vary depending on its state - solid or liquid. In solid soil, about 50–60% of the volume is occupied by mineral components, such as feldspars, quartz, zircon, and kaolinite.
Hydroxides of iron, manganese, aluminum, and carbonates play a significant role in soil formation. In addition to minerals, solid soil contains organic substances - humus, plant and animal residues. Liquid soil is a solution in which, in addition to the above components, water is present in large quantities.
How is soil formed?
Conventionally, the process of soil formation can be divided into primary and anthropogenic. In the primary phase of soil formation, the interaction of objects of organic and inorganic nature occurs. 
In other words, initially it consists of humus and minerals, subsequently its voids are filled with soil air, living organisms settle in it, which, after death, decompose and enrich the existing composition with organic substances.
The anthropogenic process implies economic activity person. People cultivate the soil, plant agricultural plants in it, and to obtain good harvest add fertilizers.
What types of soils are there?
Depending on the predominance of one or another soil-forming factor, soils can be divided into chernozem, chestnut, forest, podzolic or weakly podzolic, tundra and many others.
Vasily Dokuchaev identified 10 types of topsoil, but today more than a hundred of them are known. To classify soils, there is a whole hierarchy, which includes not only types, but also subtype, genus, species, and category.
Who lives in the soil?
Soil is a fertile habitat for a huge number of living organisms. All creatures that live in the upper layer of the earth are called pedobionts. These include both single-celled organisms, fungi, bacteria or algae, as well as larger representatives of fauna - earthworms, beetles, spiders. Most soil inhabitants feed on the remains of rotten plants or mycelium. 
There are also vertebrate animals in the soil, such as moles. It is ideally adapted for living in the dark, so it has excellent hearing and virtually no vision. In addition to moles, among mammals the soil is home to mole rats, mole rats, and mole rats.
Some animals, such as gophers, jerboas and badgers, feed on the surface of the earth, and hibernate in the soil, reproduce and escape from enemies.
