Title="The goals of euphemization of speech: 1. The desire to avoid conflicts, not to create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor: blind > blind, untruth > lies or lies. 2. Veiling the essence of the matter: for official use (about secret documents ">!}
Title="Professional euphemisms People whose professions involve risk have taboos on some words. For example, pilots, parachutists, and circus performers avoid using the word “last.” It is replaced by “extreme.” For example: extreme flight > the last ones ">!}
Title="Socially significant euphemisms In documents and media messages, euphemisms are often used that change the emotional tone of the message. For example: Negro (American) > African American, disabled > person with disabilities ">!}
Title="Joking euphemisms Euphemisms that arise as a result of combining euphemistic and playful intentions. Techniques for producing humorous euphemisms are paraphrase: For example: a glass of vodka > invite for a glass of tea; not the first youth > not the first freshness.">!}
Title="Economic euphemisms Economic euphemisms are a type of political euphemisms used by economists. For example: capitalism, capitalist > free enterprise, market, market economy, entrepreneur. Also related to economic ">!}
Title=" Etiquette euphemisms Etiquette euphemisms are euphemisms used so as not to offend the interlocutor or a third party: For example: full -> thick; can’t think of gunpowder -> stupid. Etiquette euphemism refers to the norms of linguistic behavior. Steam ">!}
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Presentation on the topic: Euphemisms in Russian
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Goals and objectives Goals of the work: to identify the features of the use of euphemisms in communication as a means of creating a psychological climate. Objectives of the work: 1) clarify the definition of euphemism. 2) formulate the purposes of using euphemisms; 3) identify linguistic means and methods of euphemism; 4) determine the range of main thematic groups of euphemisms and analyze them from the point of view of functioning in speech; 5) conduct a study of the use of euphemisms at school by teachers and students, and also in the family by parents.
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The essence of euphemism. The following points are essential for the euphemization process: 1) the speaker’s assessment of the subject of speech as one whose direct designation can be regarded as rudeness, harshness, indecency, etc.; 2) the speaker’s selection of such designations that not only soften the method of expression, but also mask and veil the essence of the phenomenon; 3) the dependence of the use of euphemism on the context and on the conditions of speech: the stricter the social control of the speech situation and the speaker’s self-control of his own speech, the more likely the appearance of euphemisms, and, on the contrary, in poorly controlled speech situations and with high automatism of speech, “direct” euphemisms may be preferred , non-euphemistic means of designation.
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The goals of euphemization of speech: 1. The desire to avoid conflicts, not to create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor: blind > blind, untruth > lie or lies.2. Veiling the essence of the matter: for official use (about secret documents), streamlining or regulating prices (increasing), 3. The desire to hide from others what the speaker wants to communicate only to a specific addressee (“I am changing a 3-room apartment for a 4-room apartment under a solid agreement ). The recipients of euphemism can be both individuals and representatives of a certain social group (this is especially typical for political euphemism).
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Linguistic means and methods of euphemization 1) defining words with diffuse semantics: some, known, definite, corresponding, appropriate, etc.: “People are driving in Mercedes, I would say, with peculiar faces” 2) nouns with with a fairly general meaning, used to name very specific objects and actions: signal (in the meaning of “a message to higher authorities about something unfavorable”); 3) indefinite or demonstrative pronouns, as well as pronominal phrases such as this is the case, one place: You have did anything happen to Tolya? - No, what are you talking about! We had nothing with him (meaning sexual relations); 4) foreign words and terms used as designations more suitable - due to their less intelligibility to most native speakers - for veiling the essence of the phenomenon than the original vocabulary: pediculosis (instead of lice), 5) words denoting the incompleteness of an action or a weak degree of a property used not in its dictionary meaning, but as a euphemism: not to hear (about a deaf person); 6) abbreviations, especially characteristic of the repressive sphere and areas related to the concealment of military and state secrets: VM = capital punishment (punishment), i.e. execution,
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Areas of use of euphemisms: Frightening objects and phenomena. For example, for the thematic area “death”: losing a patient, death (medical), funeral service bureau. Names of this type are often formed through direct or indirect negation: to take someone’s life; receive an injury incompatible with life. Non-prestigious, from the point of view of a given society, profession and organization: a stylist instead of a hairdresser, a lyceum instead of a vocational school, an operator at a slaughterhouse instead of a flayer. Socially non-prestigious names and surnames: Gnidin > Gnedin, Grobov > Gromov, Blokhin > Sokolov , Chicken > Orlov, etc. Some physiological processes and conditions: Free your nose! Certain parts of the body associated with the "bottom"; Relations between the sexes; Various spheres of social life of a person and society (for example, diplomacy, which traditionally uses various kinds of camouflaging expressions such as certain circles, adequate measures, unpredictable consequences, peacekeeping action, physical elimination. Certain types of speech acts. For example, speech acts of threat, blackmail - “U you may be in trouble”; “If you do not comply with our requirements, you will have problems” (difficulties, complications, etc.).
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Everyday euphemisms Everyday euphemisms are euphemisms used when one does not want to call something unpleasant or physically disgusting by its direct name. For example: I eased my nose, I managed with a handkerchief, in my mouth after yesterday it was as if a squadron had spent the night.
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Gender euphemisms Gender euphemisms are euphemisms that representatives of feminist organizations insist on introducing, believing that “part of male power is the power of speech”: Alternative appearance - unattractive appearance. Gallantry is a weapon of suppression that makes a woman unable to solve life's problems without the daily help of a man.
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Ironic euphemisms Ironic euphemisms are euphemisms as the subject of irony or black humor. Neighbor is the one whom we are ordered to love more than ourselves and who does everything possible to make us disobey. The future is that period of time when our affairs prosper, our friends are faithful and our happiness is guaranteed. Congratulations are a polite manifestation of envy. Erudition is dust , shaken out of a book into an empty skull.
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Masking euphemisms Masking euphemisms - euphemisms that veil the true essence of the denoted are called masking euphemisms. Masking euphemisms are intended to “varnish” the condemned object. As an example, let us give a fragment of one famous dialogue. For example: small apartment > compact apartment; embezzlement of funds > misuse of funds, redistribution of funds
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Politically correct euphemisms Behind each class of these euphemisms are demands put forward by a certain social group or a certain political movement. Politically correct euphemisms serve, in particular, to “overcome interethnic, intercultural, interethnic contradictions and conflicts.” For example: ordering prices or changing tariffs > increasing prices, poor > beggar
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Professional euphemisms People whose professions involve risk have taboos on certain words. For example, pilots, paratroopers, and circus performers avoid using the word “last.” It is replaced by “extreme”. For example: extreme flight > last, yellow metal > gold.
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Among best examples euphemistic language - words relating to the most unpleasant topic for us - death.
Most often, when reporting death, we resort to the euphemism “passed away.” Or “left us.” If you believe in an afterlife, then perhaps you will prefer the expression “returned home” or “went to better world”or you will say that he was “called from the other side.” When I hear someone called from the other side, I always imagine Fifth Avenue.
There is also an official designation for dying, medical. For doctors it will be simple: “died.” Similar to how, for example, a magazine subscription ends. There won't be a next number. Only here, unfortunately, renewal is not provided. At least that's what it seems. It's better to ask the Indians about this.
Let's go further. In our era of specialization - and increasing disunity - if a person dies in a hospital, they will call it FATAL. However, the insurance company will have its own view: NEGATIVE RESULT OF MEDICAL CARE. This is neat, isn't it? And if a negative result of medical care is caused by medical incompetence, then they call it a “medical failure.” An expressive term. It's no wonder so many doctors are leaving medicine: it's hard to get insurance against medical failure.
And yet, among all the figures of speech that we have come up with to facilitate the perception of death, the descriptions of the rituals traditionally performed by the relatives and friends of the deceased are incomparably inventive. The funeral business supplies us with such roundabouts by the carload. However, these people themselves prefer to call their commerce THE SPHERE OF RITUAL SERVICES. They completely changed the language used to describe the events following the death of a neighbor.
In the old days it looked like this: “THE OLD MAN DIED, and then THE UNDERTAKER took the BODY, took it to the FUNERAL HOME and put it in the COFFIN. People carried FLOWERS to the coffin and SITTED WITH THE DECEASED. After the REFUGEAL SERVICE, the COFFIN was placed in a HEARSE and brought to the CEMETERY, where the deceased was LOWERED INTO THE GRAVE AND BURIED.”
But in the current era of heightened sensitivity, the same events seem to be described in a completely different way: “OUR ELDERLY MAN LEFT US, and then the FUNERAL AGENT RECOGNIZED THE REMAINS OF THE DECEASED, took them to the FUNERAL CHAPEL and PROVIDED THEM WITH RITUAL ACCESSORIES. MOURNERS sent FAREWELL BOUQUETS, which were exhibited in the FAREWELL HALL, where the MINE OF GRIEF held a vigil at the tomb. Following the FUNERAL SERVICE, THE FUNERAL CREW carried the DECEASED to the GARDEN OF MEMORY, where his HUMAN REMAINS INTERIED at their FINAL RESTING.”
Well? What is this about? Did someone die or what?
This is a euphemism a soft, euphonious word or phrase that is deliberately used instead of rude, obscene, prohibited or undesirable for certain (religious, superstitious, ethical, aesthetic, censorship, etc.) reasons while maintaining the meaning of the expression; in the style of tropes, a type of metonymy.
Reception feature
The use of euphemism, without changing the semantic content of the expression, can replace its speech form, weaken the emotional coloring (stupid - unreasonable), soften the negative meaning (lie - tell a lie, deviate from the truth, make up; be late - be delayed).
Euphemism is often combined with periphrasis (to die is to give your soul to God, to close your eyes forever).
Origin of euphemism
The tradition of using indirect expressions has long mythological roots. Euphemism appeared as a linguistic taboo, conditioned by prohibitions on pronunciation of the designations of totems and names of gods; a type of Aesopian language built on allegory and secret writing.
Euphemistic expressions are also based on ancient verbal superstitions, that is, the fear of saying out loud the names of dangerous phenomena (diseases, negative concepts according to religious beliefs) so as not to cause them. Thus, euphemism is a stylistic device created by the culture of the folk worldview.
Examples of euphemisms:
- Using the word “unclean” instead of “demon”;
- Representatives of professions associated with increased risk (pilots, parachutists, miners, etc.) avoid the word “last”, instead of which they use “extreme”.
Spreading
The principle of avoiding tactless or unpleasant expressions was inherited by representatives of the medieval fiction and journalism.
A classic example of a consistent change in form of expression is the well-known variation in the titles of French newspaper articles about Napoleon's advance towards Paris after fleeing the island of Elba during the Hundred Days.
In the courtly poetry of medieval chivalry, euphemisms became widespread as indirect designations of intimate parts of the body.
Euphemism in artistic speech
Euphemism is widely used in literature as a means of enhancing imagery, euphony, and expressiveness of speech.
The method of expressing thoughts in a veiled form began to take root in Russian literature from the end of the 18th century, where it was used primarily to bypass censorship. Subsequently, euphemism appeared in satirical, humorous and other genres beyond censorship restrictions.
The stylistic device of euphony of speech was used by great Russian writers - A. S. Pushkin, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, N. V. Gogol, A. P. Chekhov, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov -Shchedrin et al.
Euphemisms are often introduced into the text in order to give a comic effect to the composition, as well as for ethical and ideological reasons. A striking example that combines these properties is the epigram of A. S. Pushkin:
Other swearing is of course indecent,
You can’t write: So-and-so is an old man,
Goat with glasses, ugly slanderer,
And angry and mean: all this will be a personality.
But you can print, for example,
That Mr. Parnassus Old Believer,
(In his articles), nonsense speaker,
Extremely lethargic, extremely boring...
(A.S. Pushkin, epigram “Cruelly offended by magazines...”, 1829)
Euphemism in rhetoric
Indirect phrases are widely used in the language of diplomacy in order to comply political correctness or hiding the true meaning of an expression from society, for example “peacekeeping action”, “non-indigenous population”, etc.
Euphemisms are used in colloquial speech to replace profanity or create wordplay.
Relationship with other techniques
Euphemism correlates with the stylistic devices of metonymy and periphrasis. In a more detailed concept, it is considered as a type of metonymy - a trope based on allegory.
The opposite figure of speech to euphemism is dysphemism.
The word euphemism comes from Greek euphemismos, which translated means piety (eu - good, phemi - I say).
Euphemism is the replacement of rude, indecent or inappropriate expressions in a given context with neutral words or phrases. The term is based on the ancient Greek word ευφήμη - piety.
Examples
I have right now "those days"– i.e. period.
He came home already "ready"– i.e. drunk.
Of course we "thanked" Ivan Ivanovich - i.e. gave a bribe.
Euphemism. Examples from literature
In almost any work of art you can find euphemism. In the famous novel Crime and Punishment, written by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Rodion Raskolnikov replaces the word “murder” with euphemisms "This" or "case" .
Am I capable of this?
What business do I want to encroach on and at the same time what trifles am I afraid of?
Use of euphemism
Religion and superstition
Superstitions are widespread in risky professions, which leads to the emergence of such a phenomenon as “euphemism words.” Thus, among pilots and cosmonauts it is not customary to say “last”; instead, the euphemism is used "extreme".
According to folk beliefs, saying the name of evil spirits out loud means summoning them, so euphemisms were used instead of the words “devil”, “demon” or “devil” "sly", "horned" etc.
Official documents
Corresponds to the language of official documents neutral tone, so they often contain euphemistic words. For example, they can be used to designate a social group:
"People with special educational needs"
"People with developmental delays"
Speech manipulation
Also, euphemism phrases can be used for verbal manipulation and smoothing out reality:
"No positive results"
"Complete failure"
"All Quiet on the Western Front"
"We are retreating"
Everyday speech
Euphemisms in Russian are often used to replace swear words:
"Send in three letters"
“Fuck you!”
“Get off to the garden!”
"Fly-fly"
"Japanese Policeman"
Euphemisms are used to refer to physiological processes that are not usually discussed in public. When warning her interlocutor about her intention to go to the toilet, a woman can say:
“I’ll go powder my nose.”
IMPORTANT!
The abundance of euphemisms leads to speech redundancy. They can also give the reader the feeling that the author wants to avoid the problem.
Some euphemisms change meaning over time and can even become obscenities. For example, a neutral word "horseradish" in a certain context it sounds obscene.
Similar terms
Dysphemism- a rude or obscene expression that is used instead of a neutral one. Dysphemism is the opposite in meaning to euphemism. For example, if instead of “die” you say "leave us" or “go to a better world” is a euphemism, but if "die" or "get over" - this is dysphemism.
Eschrofemism is a figure of speech that implies that of all the meanings of a polysemantic word, only negative or indecent ones are taken into account. For example, some have the word "sit down" is associated only with imprisonment, so they try to avoid it in other meanings, using the euphemism "to sit down." Eschrophemism is one of the prerequisites for using euphemism. The term “eschrofemism” was introduced into scientific circulation by philologist Hasan Huseynov and has not yet received widespread use.
Nikitina I.N.
SOCIAL EUPHEMISM IN MODERN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES
SOCIAL EUPHEMISMS IN MODERN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES
Key words: euphemisms, social euphemisms, business euphemisms, methods of forming euphemisms.
Key words: euphemisms, social euphemisms, business euphemisms, patterns of euphemisms formation.
annotation
The article touches upon the problem of the functioning of social euphemisms in modern English and Russian languages. Using the example of euphemisms of one thematic group - economics and business - the methods of euphemism characteristic of the English and Russian languages are analyzed, ethical aspects euphemistic nomination.
An attempt of comparative analysis of social euphemisms in Russian and English languages is made. Euphemisms of business and economic spheres in two languages are being investigated. Common and peculiar features in business euphemisms formation of Russian and English languages are revealed.
“Euphemism is the replacement of any illegal or unwanted word or expression with a more correct one in order to avoid directly naming anything that can cause negative feelings in both the speaker and the interlocutor, as well as in order to disguise certain facts of reality”1. From this definition follow the main goals of communication, which determine the euphemization of speech:
1. The main goal pursued by speakers when using euphemisms in social and interpersonal relationships is the desire to avoid communicative conflicts and not create a feeling of communicative discomfort in the interlocutor. In other words, these are euphemisms dictated by a sense of delicacy or political correctness.
2. More specific - in the social sense - is another purpose of euphemization: veiling, camouflage of the essence of the matter.
The most comprehensive, in our opinion, lexical-semantic classification of euphemisms was compiled by L.P. Krysin. He divided the spheres of functioning of euphemisms into personal, relating to the life and personality of the speaker, the addressee and third parties, and social, relating to a person’s relationships with other people, with society, with power:
"1. Personal:
Some physiological processes and conditions;
Certain parts of the body associated with the "bottom";
Relations between the sexes;
Disease and death.
2. Social:
"O.V. Obvintseva. Euphemism in political communication (based on material in English in comparison with Russian): dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. - Ekaterinburg, 2003. P. 14.
Diplomacy;
Repressive actions of the authorities;
State and military secrets and secrets;
Activities of the army, intelligence, police, criminal investigation and some other authorities;
Distribution and service area;
Relations between different national and social groups;
Some types of professions"2.
Thus, personal and social euphemisms can include a variety of thematic groups included in a given area of functioning of euphemisms.
In different languages, in different times certain thematic groups of euphemisms become productive. So, in English, for example, unlike Russian, there is traditionally a large group of substitute names associated with the name of God, Jesus Christ. Instead of the words God, Jesus, Christ, Lord, their numerous euphemistic variants can be used: God - Dad, Gar, Gawd, Gord, Gott, Gosh, Gol, Godfrey, gum, gub, gorra, Goshen...; Jesus - chee, cheesy, chiz, jacks, jaises, jees, jeepers, jim, jing, jingo, jink...; Christ - cracky, creation, Cris, cricket, cricky, cringe, cripes...; Lord - Law, Lawd, Laws, Lordy, Lorsy, Lawks... In the above options, among other things, the technique of creating euphemisms, such as sound analogy, is clearly visible. It should be noted that sound analogy is intensively used in English, German, Italian, but to a lesser extent in Russian.
Dynamic socio-economic changes in modern society contribute to the fact that the most productive in many modern languages social euphemisms and, above all, a thematic group of euphemisms related to economics and business become.
The euphemisms of this thematic group became the subject of this study. The material for the analysis was English euphemisms in the sphere of business and economics, presented in dictionaries of English euphemisms published in the UK and the USA3, as well as Russian and English euphemisms of this thematic group, recorded in various printed publications of the last decade.
Thus, in Russian economic discourse, many replacement names have recently appeared to denote the economic crisis - growth without development, suspension in development, attenuation of growth, zero growth rates, downward correction; designations of negative phenomena associated with the crisis - price liberalization (instead of “price increases”), liquidity problems (instead of “lack of money”), optimization / release of personnel (instead of “dismissal”), social benefits (instead of “poverty benefits” ), the bottom layer of the buyer pyramid (instead of “poor”).
Crises in the economy manifest themselves primarily in the bankruptcy of companies and growing unemployment. These phenomena are subject to persistent euphemization in the English-speaking business environment.
The methods of forming English euphemisms for the thematic subgroup “bankruptcy” are very diverse. Firstly, metaphors are widely used to replace this direct name: take a bath (take a bath) or the American euphemism fall out of bed (fall out of bed) - instead of having big financial problems; close its doors (close your doors), fold (curl up), take a haircut (get a haircut), wash out/up (wash off) -
2 Krysin L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech // Russian language of the end of the 20th century (1985 - 1995). - M.: Languages of Russian culture, 2000. - P. 389-400.
3 Ayto J. Dictionary of Euphemisms. Bloomsbury, Britain, 2000; Berdoll L.,Very Nice Ways to Say Very Bad Things. The Unusual Book of Euphemisms. Well, There It Is Del Valle, Texas, 2003; Enright D.J. In Other Words. The Meanings and Memoirs of Euphemisms. Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., London, 2005; Holder R.W. Oxford Dictionary of Euphemisms. How Not to Say What You Mean. Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2003; Neaman J.S. & Silver C.G. Kind Words: A Thesaurus of Euphemism. Avon Books, New York, 1990; Rowson H.A. Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doubletalk. Castle Books, - New York, 2002.
instead of “go bankrupt/bankrupt”.
Technical terms can be used as euphemisms:
over-geared (include accelerated transmission: gearing is a term for denoting the ratio of assets and liabilities of a company) - instead of “insolvent”;
hammer (to hit with a hammer: the blow of a hammer on the stock exchange called for silence before the official announcement) - instead of “go bankrupt.”
Foreign borrowings, primarily from the English language, serve as a productive way of forming replacement names for the Russian language. Tokens of foreign language origin often replace an undesirable word, since their meaning does not cause negative connotations due to the lack of an internal form. As the analysis showed, euphemisms can be borrowed in the Russian language in two forms:
1) in the form of a tracing paper (element-by-element translation into Russian of an English euphemism while maintaining its meaning), for example, a period of negative economic growth< period of negative economic growth (вместо «экономический кризис/economic crises»);
2) in the form of barbarisms (foreign words or expressions not fully mastered by the language and perceived as a violation of generally accepted language norm), for example, fluctuation An analysis of modern social euphemisms shows that among the motives of euphemism, the desire to disguise an unpleasant truth and, thus, mislead the listener or reader is increasingly coming to the fore. In the American press, the use of euphemisms in economic discourse received the ironic name “creative economic semantics”4 (creativity in economic semantics). An example of such “creativity” is the replacement in the speech of economists and politicians of the unpopular term “tax increases” with harmless “revenue enhancement” (increasing tax revenues to the budget) and “closing loopholes” (closing loopholes to minimize the tax burden). The appearance in the speech of economists and financiers of a large number of euphemistic metaphors, softening and veiling the direct names of unseemly, dishonest transactions, has become a sign of our time - a time of financial and economic turmoil. It became possible to disguise the juggling of figures in reports using the English euphemisms adjust figures or massage figures. The most commonly used adjective creative (creative) in the phrases creative accounting, creative bookkeeping (creative financial reporting, creative accounting) has recently replaced the unambiguous dishonest (dishonest). In Russian economic discourse, a similar euphemism “a creative approach to the preparation of financial statements” appeared, which replaced the previously widely used euphemism “black accounting.” Correcting or performing cosmetic surgery undoubtedly does not sound as scary as the direct name “falsify statements.” Such a negative phenomenon in the economy as a fall in exchange rates or devaluation is softened in English by the euphemism exchange rate adjustment, currency adjustment. And if you come across the expression price adjustment, you can say with a high degree of confidence that in this case we are talking about a negative trend. The euphemistic phrase technical adjustment is used to soften the name of negative processes on the stock exchange: in this case, they try to explain the fall in stock quotes as a technical problem associated with a formal stock exchange operation, and not as a consequence of deeper negative trends. 4Rothbard Murray. Making Economic Sense - http://mises.org/econsense/ch4.asp How ethical the use of such euphemisms is can be judged by the example of euphemistic names such as company reorganization and optimization widely used in the context of mass reductions. When a company characterizes the layoff of a significant number of employees as a reorganization or optimization, when it does not intend to recognize the reduction in its size as a market player in other aspects than the number of employees, and recognize that the changes made are permanent, it is nothing more than an attempt to deliberately mislead your employees. A “company reorganization” is a conscious decision to reduce the size of a company, including production volume, market share and revenue. "Optimizing" company size assumes that the company's workforce was too large, the company was producing too much, its market share was too large, and its profits were too high. In reality, most layoffs stem from management's desire to cut short-term costs, boost quarterly earnings, and do not reflect a decision to produce less, give up market share, or give up company growth. Thus, the use of these euphemisms when announcing mass layoffs inevitably misinforms workers and violates their rights to receive full information. The use of business euphemisms in general inevitably raises questions about the legality and ethics of such replacement names. Bibliography 1. Krysin, L.P. Euphemisms in modern Russian speech // Russian language of the end of the 20th century (1985 - 1995). - M.: Languages of Russian Culture, 2000. - P.384-407. 2. Nikitina, I.N. Euphemisms as an object of research in British and American linguistics // Questions of Philology. - M., 2008. - No. 2(29). - pp. 111-114. 3. Obvintseva, O.V. Euphemism in political communication (on the material of the English language in comparison with Russian): dis. ...cand. Philol. Sci. - Ekaterinburg, 2003. 4. Senichkina, E.P. Dictionary of euphemisms of the Russian language. - M., 2008. 5. Allan, K. & Burridge, K. Forbidden words. Taboo and Censoring of Language. - Cambridge University press, 2006. 6. Ayto, J. Wobbly Bits and Other Euphemisms. - A&C London, 2007. 7. Bowe, H., Martin, K. Communication across Cultures. Mutual Understanding in a Global World. - Cambridge University Press, 2007. 8. Enright, D.J. Fair of Speech: The Uses of Euphemism. - Oxford Univ. Press, 1985. 9. Enright, D.J. In Other Words. The Meanings and Memoirs of Euphemisms. - Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., London, 2005. 10. Holder, R.W. A Dictionary of Euphemisms. How not to Say What You Mean. - Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2003. 11. McGlone, M., Batchelor, J. Looking Out for Number One: Euphemism and Face // Journal of Communication. - 2003, vol. 53, No. 2. 12. Rothbard Murray. Making Economic Sense - http://mises.org/econsense/ch4.asp. 13. Rowson, H.A. Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doubletalk. - New York, 2002. 14. Warren, B. What Euphemisms Tell Us about the Interpretation of Words. // Studia Linguistica. - 1992, 46/2, pp.128 - 165.
