There are two types of heat supply- centralized and decentralized. With decentralized heat supply, the heat source and heat consumer are close to each other. There is no heating network. De district heating divided into local (heat supply from a local boiler house) and individual (stove, heat supply from boilers in apartments).

Depending on the degree of centralization, district heating systems (DH) can be divided into four groups:

1. group heat supply (HS) of a group of buildings;

2. district - TS of the city district;

3. urban - city vehicle;

4. intercity - vehicles of several cities.

The DH process consists of three operations - preparation of the coolant (HP), transport of the HP and use of the HP.

HP preparation is carried out at heat treatment plants of thermal power plants and boiler houses. HP transport is carried out via heating networks. The use of HP is carried out at heat-using installations of consumers.

A set of installations designed for the preparation, transport and use of coolant is called a centralized heating system.

There are two main categories of heat consumption:

For creating comfortable conditions labor and life (municipal load). This includes water consumption for heating, ventilation, hot water supply (DHW), air conditioning;

To produce products of a given quality (technological load).

Based on temperature level, heat is divided into:

Low potential, with temperatures up to 150 0 C;

Medium potential, with temperatures from 150 0 C to 400 0 C;

High potential, with a temperature above 400 0 C.

refers to low-potential processes. Maximum temperature in heating networks does not exceed 150 0 C (in the direct pipeline), the minimum is 70 0 C (in the return pipeline). To cover the technological load, water steam with a pressure of up to 1.4 MPa is usually used.

Heat treatment plants of thermal power plants and boiler houses are used as heat sources. The combined heat and power plant produces combined heat and electricity based on the heating cycle. Separate production of heat and electricity is carried out in boiler houses and condensing power plants. With combined generation, the total fuel consumption is lower than with separate generation.

The entire complex of heat supply source equipment, heating networks and subscriber installations is called a centralized heat supply system.

Heat supply systems are classified according to the type of heat source (or method of preparing heat), the type of coolant, the method of supplying water for hot water supply, the number of pipelines of the heating network, the method of supplying consumers, and the degree of centralization.

By type of heat source There are three types of heat supply:

Centralized heat supply from thermal power plants, called heating;

Centralized heat supply from district or industrial boiler houses;

Decentralized heat supply from local boiler houses or individual heating units.

Compared with With centralized heat supply from boiler houses, district heating has a number of advantages, which are expressed in fuel savings due to the combined production of thermal and electrical energy at the thermal power plant; the possibility of widespread use of local low-grade fuel, the combustion of which in boiler houses is difficult; in improving sanitary conditions and cleanliness of the air in cities and industrial areas due to the concentration of fuel combustion in a small number of points, located, as a rule, at a considerable distance from residential areas, and more rational use nuyu modern methods cleaning flue gases from harmful impurities.

By type of coolant Heating systems are divided into water and steam. Steam systems distributed mainly in industrial enterprises, and water systems are used for heat supply to housing and communal services and some industrial consumers. This is explained by a number of advantages of water as a coolant compared to steam: the possibility of a central quality regulation thermal load, lower energy losses during transportation and greater heat supply range, no losses of heating steam condensate, greater combined energy production at the thermal power plant, increased storage capacity.

According to the method of supplying water to hot water supply water systems are divided into closed and open.

IN closed systems The network water is used only as a coolant and is not taken from the system. Local hot water supply installations receive water from the drinking water supply, heated in special water-water heaters due to the heat of network water.

In open systems The network water directly flows into local hot water supply installations. In this case, additional heat exchangers are not required, which significantly simplifies and reduces the cost of the subscriber input device. However, water losses in an open system increase sharply (from 0.5-1% to 20-40% total consumption water in the system) and the composition of water supplied to consumers deteriorates due to the presence of corrosion products in it and the lack of biological treatment.

The advantages of closed heat supply systems are that their use ensures stable quality of hot water supplied to hot water supply installations, identical to the quality tap water; hydraulic isolation of water entering hot water supply installations from water circulating in the heating network; ease of monitoring the tightness of the system based on the amount of make-up.

The main disadvantages of closed systems are the increased complexity and cost of equipment and operation of subscriber inputs due to the installation of water-to-water heaters and corrosion of local hot water supply installations due to the use of non-deaerated water.

Main advantages of open systems heat supply lies in the possibility of maximum use of low-potential heat sources for heating large quantity make-up water. Since in closed systems the replenishment does not exceed 1% of the flow rate network water, the possibility of recycling heat from waste and blowdown water at a thermal power plant with a closed system is significantly lower than in open systems. In addition, local hot water supply installations in open systems receive deaerated water, so they are less susceptible to corrosion and are more durable.

The disadvantages of open systems are: the need to install powerful water treatment at the thermal power plant to feed the heating network, which increases the cost of station water treatment, especially with increased hardness of the source raw water; complication and increase in the volume of sanitary control over the system; making it more difficult to control the tightness of the system (since the amount of recharge does not characterize the density of the system); instability of the hydraulic mode of the network.

By number of pipelines differentiate one-, two- and multi-pipe systems. Moreover, for an open system the minimum number of pipes is one, and for a closed system it is two. The simplest and most promising for transporting heat over long distances is a single-pipe open heat supply system. However, the scope of application of such systems is limited due to the fact that its implementation is possible only under the condition that the water consumption required to satisfy the heating and ventilation load is equal to the water consumption for hot water supply to consumers of this type. nogo district. For most regions of our country, water consumption for hot water supply is significantly less (3-4 times) than the consumption of network water for heating and ventilation, therefore, two-pipe systems have become prevalent in the heating supply of cities. In a two-pipe system, the heating network consists of two lines: supply and return.

By method of provision heat consumers are distinguished one-
stepped and multi-stage heat supply systems. In one-
In stepped systems, heat consumers are connected directly to heating networks. Nodes for connecting consumers to the network
are called subscriber inputs or local heating points (MTP). At the subscriber input of each building, hot water heaters, elevators, pumps, instrumentation and control valves are installed to change the parameters of the coolant in local consumer systems.

In multi-stage systems between the heat source and consumers there are central heating points or substations (CHS), in which the parameters of the coolant change depending on the consumption of heat by local consumers. The central heating station houses a central pre-heating installation for hot water supply, a central mixing installation for network water, booster pumps for cold tap water, auto-regulating and control equipment. The use of multi-stage systems with central heating makes it possible to reduce the initial costs of constructing a hot water heating installation, pumping units and auto-regulating devices due to an increase in their unit power and a reduction in the number of equipment elements.

The optimal design productivity of the central heating substations depends on the layout of the area, the operating mode of consumers and is determined on the basis of technical and economic calculations.

By degree of centralization Heat supply can be divided into group - heat supply to a group of buildings, district - heat supply to several groups of buildings, urban - heat supply to several districts, intercity - heat supply to several cities.

Construction and design of heating networks.

The main elements of heating networks are a pipeline consisting of steel pipes connected to each other by welding; an insulating structure that absorbs the weight of the pipeline and the forces that arise during its operation.

Pipes are critical elements of pipelines and must meet the following requirements:

Sufficient strength and tightness at maximum values ​​of pressure and temperature of the coolant,

Low coefficient temperature deformations,

Providing low thermal stress at alternating thermal mode heating network,

Low roughness of the inner surface,

Anti-corrosion resistance,

High thermal resistance of the pipe walls,

Contributing to the preservation of heat and coolant temperature,

Consistency of material properties during prolonged exposure high temperatures and pressures, ease of installation,

Reliability of pipe connections, etc.

Available steel pipes do not fully satisfy all the requirements, however, their mechanical properties, simplicity, reliability and tightness of connections (welding) have ensured their primary use in heating networks.

Pipes for heating networks are made mainly from steel grades St2sp, St3sp, 10, 20, 10G2S1, 15GS, 16GS.

Seamless hot-rolled and electric-welded ones are used in heating networks. Seamless hot-rolled pipes are produced with outer diameters of 32 - 426 mm. Seamless hot-rolled electric-welded pipes are used for all methods of laying networks. Electric welded pipes are used for all methods of laying networks. Electric welded ones with a spiral seam are recommended for use in channel and overhead installations of networks.

Supports. When constructing heating networks, two types of supports are used: free and fixed. Free supports support the weight of the heat pipe and ensure its free movement during temperature deformations. Fixed supports are designed to secure the pipeline at characteristic points of the network and perceive forces arising at the point of fixation both in the radial and axial directions under the influence of weight, temperature deformations and internal pressure.

Compensators . Compensation for temperature deformations in pipelines is carried out with special devices called compensators. Based on their operating principle, they are divided into two groups:

Radial or flexible compensators that absorb heat pipe extensions by bending or torsion of curved sections of pipes or by bending special elastic inserts of various shapes;

Axial compensators, in which elongation is perceived by telescopic movement of pipes or compression of spring inserts.

The most widely used in practice are flexible expansion joints of various configurations, made from the pipeline itself (U- and S-shaped, lyre-shaped with and without folds, etc.). Simplicity of the device, reliability, no need for maintenance, unloaded fixed supports- the advantage of these compensators.

The disadvantages of flexible expansion joints include: increased hydraulic resistance, increased pipe flow, lateral movement of deformed areas, which requires an increase in the width of non-passable channels and complicates the use of backfill insulation, channelless pipelines, as well as large dimensions, which complicate their use in cities when the route is saturated with urban underground communications .

Axial compensators are made of sliding type (stuffing box) and elastic type (lens compensators).

Stuffing box compensator made from standard pipes and consists of a body, a glass and a seal. When the pipeline is extended, the glass is pushed into the body cavity. Tightness sliding joint The body and glass are created by a stuffing box, which is made of a printed asbestos cord impregnated with oil. Over time, the packing wears out and loses elasticity, so periodic tightening of the seal and replacement of the packing is required. Lens compensators made from sheet steel are free from this drawback. Lens compensators welded type are mainly used in pipelines low pressure(up to 0.4-0.5 MPa).

The design of the pipeline elements also depends on the method of its installation, which is selected on the basis of a technical and economic comparison of possible options.

Gives the following definition of the term "heat supply":

Heat supply- a system for providing heat to buildings and structures designed to provide thermal comfort for the people in them or to enable them to meet technological standards.

Any heat supply system consists of three main elements:

1. Heat source. This can be a thermal power plant or a boiler room (with a centralized heating system), or simply a boiler located in a separate building (local system).
2. Thermal energy transport system(heating network).
3. Heat consumers(heating radiators (batteries) and air heaters).

Classification

Heat supply systems are divided into:

• Centralized
• Local(they are also called decentralized).

They can be water And steam. The latter are not often used these days.

Local heating systems

Everything is simple here. In local systems, the source of thermal energy and its consumer are located in the same building or very close to each other. For example, a boiler is installed in a separate house. The water heated in this boiler is subsequently used to meet the heating and hot water needs of the home.

District heating systems

In a centralized heating system, the heat source is either a boiler house, which produces heat for a group of consumers: a block, a city district, or even the entire city.

With such a system, heat is transported to consumers via main heating networks. From the main networks, the coolant is supplied to central heating points (CHS) or individual heating points (IHP). From the central heating substations, heat is already supplied through district networks to buildings and structures of consumers.

According to the method of connecting the heating system, heat supply systems are divided into:

• Dependent systems— the coolant from the thermal energy source (CHP, boiler house) goes directly to the consumer. With such a system, the scheme does not provide for the presence of central or individual heating points. In simple terms, water from heating networks goes directly to the batteries.

• Independent systems - This system contains TsTP and ITP. The coolant circulating through the heating networks heats the water in the heat exchanger (1st circuit - red and green lines). The water heated in the heat exchanger circulates in the heating system of consumers (circuit 2 - orange and blue lines).

With the help of make-up pumps, water losses through leaks and damage in the system are replenished and pressure in the return pipeline is maintained.

According to the method of connecting the hot water supply system, heat supply systems are divided into:

• Closed. With such a system, water from the water supply is heated by a coolant and supplied to the consumer. I wrote about it in an article.

• Open. In an open heating system, water for DHW needs is taken directly from the heating network. For example, in winter you use heating and hot water"from one pipe." For such a system the following figure is valid: dependent system heat supply.

The main purpose of any heat supply system is to provide consumers with the necessary amount of heat of the required quality (i.e. coolant of the required parameters).

Depending on the location of the heat source in relation to consumers, heat supply systems are divided into decentralized and centralized.

Decentralized systems

In decentralized systems, the heat source and heat receivers of consumers are either combined in one unit, or are located so close that the transfer of heat from the source to the heat receivers can be carried out practically without an intermediate link - a heating network.

Systems decentralized heat supply are divided into individual and local.

IN individual systems Heat supply for each room (workshop area, room, apartment) is provided from a separate source. Such systems, in particular, include furnace and apartment heating. In local systems, heat supply to each building is provided from a separate heat source, usually from a local or individual boiler house. This system, in particular, includes the so-called central heating of buildings.

Centralized systems

In centralized heat supply systems, the heat source and heat receivers of consumers are located separately, often at a considerable distance, so heat from the source to consumers is transferred through heating networks.

Depending on the degree of centralization, district heating systems can be divided into the following four groups:

• group – heat supply from one source to a group of buildings;
• district - heat supply from one source to several groups of buildings (district);
• urban - heat supply from one source to several areas;
• intercity – heat supply from one source to several cities.

The district heating process consists of three sequential operations: preparation of the coolant, transportation of the coolant and use of the coolant.

The coolant is transported through heating networks. The coolant is used in heat receivers of consumers. A set of installations designed for the preparation, transportation and use of coolant constitutes a centralized heat supply system. For heat transport, as a rule, two coolants are used: water and water vapor. To satisfy the seasonal load and hot water supply load, water is usually used as a coolant; for industrial process loads, steam is used.

The choice of the facility’s heat supply system is made on the basis of a heat supply scheme approved in the established manner.

Water systems

Water heating systems are used in two types: closed (closed) and open (open). In closed systems, network water circulating in the heating network is used only as a coolant, but is not taken from the network.

In open systems, network water is partially (rarely completely) removed from subscribers for hot water supply.

Depending on the number of pipelines used to supply heat to a given group of consumers, water systems are divided into one-, two-, three- and multi-pipe. The minimum number of pipelines for an open system is one, and for a closed system - two.

The simplest and most promising for transport over long distances is a single-pipe drainless heat supply system. It can be applied in the case where equality of network water flows required to satisfy the heating and ventilation load and for hot water supply to subscribers of a given city or region is ensured.

For heat supply to cities, in most cases, two-pipe water systems are used, in which the heating network consists of two pipelines: supply and return. Hot water is supplied from the station to subscribers through the supply pipeline, and cooled water is returned to the station through the return pipeline.

The predominant use of two-pipe systems in cities is explained by the fact that these systems, compared to multi-pipe systems, require lower initial investments and are cheaper to operate. Two-pipe systems are applicable in cases where all consumers in the area require heat of approximately the same potential. Such conditions typically occur in cities where the entire heat load (heating, ventilation and hot water supply) can be met primarily by low potential heat.

In industrial areas where there is a process heat load of increased potential, three-pipe systems can be used, in which two pipelines are used as supply, and the third pipeline is the return. Uniform in potential and mode are connected to each supply pipeline thermal loads. In industrial areas, usually to one server.

Number of parallel pipelines in closed system should be at least two, since after heat transfer in subscriber installations, the coolant must be returned to the station. Depending on the nature of the subscriber’s thermal loads and the operating mode of the heating network, schemes for connecting subscriber installations to the heating network are selected.

In closed heat supply systems, hot water supply installations are connected to the heating network only through water-to-water heaters, i.e. according to an independent scheme. With dependent connection schemes, the pressure in the subscriber installation depends on the pressure in the heating network. With independent connection schemes, the pressure in the local system does not depend on the pressure in the heating network.

Subscriber input equipment with a dependent connection scheme is simpler and cheaper than with an independent one, and a slightly larger temperature difference of the network water in the subscriber installation can be obtained. An increase in the water temperature difference reduces the coolant consumption in the network, which can lead to a reduction in network diameters and savings on the initial cost of the heating network and operating costs.

The main disadvantage of the dependent connection scheme is the rigid hydraulic connection of the heating network with the heating devices of subscriber installations, which, as a rule, have reduced mechanical strength, which limits the limits of the permissible operating modes of the centralized heat supply system. Thus, in cast iron heating devices (radiators) widely used in heating technology, the permissible pressure does not exceed 0.6 MPa; exceeding the specified limit can lead to accidents in heating installations. This significantly reduces the reliability and complicates the operation of heat supply systems in large cities, since with a large length of heating networks and a large number of connected subscriber installations with heterogeneous heat loads, water flow rates in the network and associated pressure losses can vary widely. In this case, the pressure level in the network may exceed the limit permissible for subscriber installations.

In cases where the difference between permissible pressure in heat-consuming devices of subscribers and the design pressure in the heating network is small, even small increases in pressure in the heating network, caused, for example, by an emergency shutdown of a pump at a substation or involuntary shutdown of a valve in the network, can lead to rupture of devices in heating installations of subscribers. In addition, with an independent circuit, network water leaks are reduced and it is easier to detect damage in the heating system that occurs during operation. Therefore, in terms of the reliability of operation of heat supply systems in large cities, an independent connection scheme is more preferable. In those cases when the pressure in the heating network under static conditions exceeds the permissible pressure level in subscriber installations, the use independent scheme connection is mandatory regardless of the size of the district heating system.

Direct tapping of network water from consumers in closed heat supply systems is not permitted.

In open heat supply systems, the connection of some hot water supply consumers through water-water heat exchangers at heat points of subscribers (via a closed system) is allowed as a temporary connection, provided that the quality of network water is ensured (maintained) in accordance with the requirements of current regulatory documents.

Steam systems

Steam systems are constructed of two types: with condensate return, without condensate return. In industrial heating practice, a single-pipe steam system with condensate return is widely used. Steam from the turbine outlet enters a single-pipe steam network and is transported through it to thermal consumers. Condensate is returned from consumers to the station via a condensate pipeline. In case of turbine shutdown or insufficient extraction power, a backup steam supply to the network is provided through a reduction-cooling unit.

Schemes for connecting subscriber installations to the steam network depend on the design of these installations. If steam can be released directly into the subscriber’s installation, then the connection is made according to a dependent circuit. Collecting condensate from heat-consuming installations and returning it to the heat source is important not only for the reliability of the operation of boiler installations of modern combined heat and power plants, but also for saving heat and the overall efficiency of the heat supply system as a whole. Condensate return is especially important for thermal power plants with high and supercritical initial parameters(13 MPa and above).

Page 1

A centralized heat supply system includes a heat supply source (CHP or district boiler house), pipelines for heat transport (heat networks) and user installations that consume heat.  

Centralized heat supply systems from thermal power stations(TES) are the most effective. Currently, a fundamentally new direction in the centralized heat supply of large cities is beginning to be implemented on the basis of powerful nuclear heat supply stations.  

Steam centralized systems Heating systems are used in the Soviet Union, as a rule, in industrial areas.  

In boiler houses of centralized heating systems, steam drum boilers with natural circulation and once-through water heating boilers of mass production, as well as, by agreement with the customer, boiler units of new types manufactured at installation sites. The type of boiler units depends on the type and method of fuel combustion, productivity, type and parameters of the coolant. Specifications boilers are accepted according to the manufacturer's data.  

The implementation of separate and integrated centralized heat supply systems for residential and industrial areas depends on the distance between the niches.  

This caused the need to create a special reference book on the design of boiler installations for centralized heat supply systems.  

In cases where a separate power supply scheme is economically feasible or the concentration of heat loads for the construction of thermal power plants is insufficient, boiler plants are designed as the main heat sources of centralized heat supply systems.  

More than half of the supply of thermal energy (51%) from centralized sources is provided by combined heat and power plants. By the beginning of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, centralized heat supply systems had been developed in 800 cities of the country.  

The optimal power of centralized heat supply systems from boiler houses is determined by the heat supply scheme of the area or industrial unit and depends on the nature of the heat loads of consumers included in the heat supply area (municipal loads or industrial-heating loads with a certain ratio of steam and hot water), capital investments in construction boiler and heating networks and operating costs for the system as a whole. The criterion that determines the boundaries for the selection of unit capacities of boiler houses and centralized heat supply systems is the reduced costs, determined, on the one hand, by the positive economic effect during the transition from moderate to more powerful sources heat, on the other hand, a negative economic effect associated with additional costs for heating networks.  

Inefficient sources of heat supply, consisting of individual small boiler houses, could not satisfy the grandiose construction ongoing in our country. In search of a solution to this problem, the idea of ​​a centralized heat supply system appeared, which is based on the combined production of heat and electricity. There are two centralized heating systems: district heating and district heating. In the first, the heat source is a combined heat and power plant (CHP), and in the second, a large district boiler house. At a thermal power plant, hot water is prepared in a special heating plant, which is equipped with main and peak water heaters (boilers), circulation and make-up pumps, deaerators and mud collectors.  

The most effective sources of heat supply, as is known, are centralized heat supply systems from thermal power plants. Despite obvious advantage centralized sources, the share of individual and quarterly boiler houses of low and medium power in the total volume of heat supply sources is still quite large.  

An increase in the lower limit of the efficiency of using a combined energy supply scheme and a corresponding expansion of the range of heat loads for a separate scheme is associated with an increase in the thermal power of boiler houses and a relative increase in the technical and economic indicators of heat supply systems. In this regard, to design solutions boiler houses of centralized heating systems are required to increased requirements in terms of efficiency and modern technical level. Meanwhile, when developing boiler house projects by numerous design organizations, there is still an approach to their design as a solution to a local problem, without taking into account the requirements of heat supply schemes for the selection of heat sources.  

Heating and ventilation technology has a long history of development. From heating homes by lighting a fire on an earthen floor, which was used in ancient times, to modern centralized heating systems with a range of several kilometers and automatically operating installations for creating an artificial climate in residential, public and industrial buildings - this is the path traversed by heating and ventilation technology .  

Instructions for designing rooftop boiler houses using them as fuel natural gas contains additional requirements for existing regulatory documents when placing heat sources on the roofs of buildings. The use of such boiler houses is mainly caused by a shortage of thermal power of a centralized heat source or the inexpediency of connecting the building to a centralized heat supply system according to technical and economic calculations.  

A centralized heat supply system consists of the following main elements: a heat source, heating networks and local consumption systems - heating, ventilation and hot water supply systems.

For centralized heat supply, two types of heat sources are used: combined heat and power plants (CHP) and district boiler houses (RB).

The combined heat and power plant produces combined heat and electricity, providing a significant reduction unit costs fuel when generating electricity. In this case, the heat of the working fluid - water steam - is used to generate electricity when steam expands in turbines, and then the remaining heat of the exhaust steam is used to heat water in heat exchangers that make up the heating equipment of the CHP plant. Hot water is used for heating. Thus, in a thermal power plant, high-potential heat is used to generate electricity, and low-potential heat is used for low-potential heat supply. This is the energy meaning of combined heat and power generation. When they are generated separately, electricity is obtained at condensing stations (CES), and heat is obtained in boiler houses. In capacitors steam turbines At IES, a deep vacuum is maintained, which corresponds to low temperatures (15-200C), and cooling water is not used. As a result, additional fuel is consumed for heat supply. Consequently, separate generation is economically less profitable than combined generation.

The advantages of heating and centralized heating are most clearly manifested when heat loads are concentrated, which is typical for modern developing cities.

Another source of heat supply is the Republic of Kazakhstan. Thermal power modern RK is 150-200 Gcal/h. This concentration of heat loads allows the use of large units, modern technical equipment boiler rooms, which provides high efficiency fuel use.

Domestic district heating is based on district thermal power plants common use and at industrial thermal power plants as part of enterprises from which heat is supplied both to industrial enterprises and to nearby cities and towns. To meet the heating, ventilation and domestic loads of residential and public buildings, as well as industrial enterprises mainly use hot water. The use of hot water as a coolant makes it possible to use the heat of low-pressure exhaust steam for heat supply, which increases the efficiency of district heating due to an increase in the specific generation of electrical energy based on thermal consumption.

Modern centralized heat supply systems are a complex complex, including heat sources, heating networks with pumping stations and heating points and subscriber inputs equipped with systems automatic control. To ensure reliable functioning of such systems, it is necessary to construct them hierarchically, in which the entire system is divided into a number of levels, each of which has its own task, decreasing in importance from the top level to the bottom. The upper level consists of heat sources, the next level consists of main heating networks with RTP, the lower level consists of distribution networks with consumer inputs. Heat sources are supplied to heating networks hot water set temperature and set pressure, ensure water circulation in the system and maintain proper hydrodynamic and static pressure. They have special water treatment plants where chemical cleaning and deaeration of water. The main heat carrier flows are transported through the main heating networks to heat consumption units. In the RTP, the coolant is distributed among the regions and autonomous hydraulic and thermal conditions are maintained in the district networks. Individual consumers should not be connected to the main heating networks so as not to disrupt the hierarchical structure of the system.

The development of district heating contributes to the solution of many important national economic and social problems, such as increasing the thermal and general efficiency of energy production, ensuring economical and high-quality electricity and heat supply to housing and communal services and industrial complexes, reducing labor costs in the heating sector, improving the environmental situation in cities and industrial areas.

heat supply piezometric temperature