Pansies– this is incredible beautiful flower, which cannot help but attract your attention. It has several names - viola, moth, half-flower, scrofula and others.

Today we will talk about the varieties and characteristics of the Pansy flower. You can see a photo of this plant in the article below. You will also learn the intricacies of growing.

Pansies: photos of flowers and their descriptions

Violas belong to the category of perennial plants, but they are grown according to the agricultural technology of biennial plants. The plant blooms abundantly in open ground in spring and early summer. It opens its petals at the very beginning of spring.

In the photo you can see the features of this plant:

• single flowers;
• their diameter ranges from 6 to 10 cm;
• pansies rise from the sinuses;
• sometimes they exude a light and delicate aroma;
• the flowers have delicate leaves of a light green hue and oval shape, the edges are jagged and crenate.

Varieties of pansies amaze with their variety of shades. Breeders were able to breed a large number of types in terms of colors:

Also There are also red-brown species, and varietal specimens have borders, stripes and eyes on the petals.

Classification of pansies

In the photo you can see violets different types. So, pansies may vary depending on the height of the bush:

• short;
• average;
• tall.

They are also divided depending on the size of the flower. So, some types have:

• large flowers;
• small;
• gigantic.

And they may differ along the edges of the petals, in some cases they can be smooth, and in some cases they can be wavy.

Pansy petals can have the following shades:

• monotonous;
• double;
• a series of flowers with contrasting stripes and spots.

There are more than 15 varieties in total; they differ from each other in the following parameters:

There are special varieties, for example, copies of the “Russian Size” series have a diameter of more than 10 cm, not so long ago the hanging variety “Waterfall” was bred, which is intended for cultivation in hanging baskets and has a lush and abundant flowering.

IN landscape design Pansies of monochromatic colors are often used, which are planted to delimit the territory of the site with bright contrasting colors.

Features of planting pansies

High decorative value of these plants in open ground depends a lot on where exactly they are planted. This plant is very shade-tolerant, and in dense shade the flower begins to degenerate, which manifests itself in the following symptoms:

• flowers become smaller;
• saturation disappears;
• the stems of pansies stretch out and fade;
• The flowering time of pansies is reduced.

An important condition for the successful flowering of pansies is suitable soil. For example, Sandy, rocky and dry soil is completely unsuitable for this flower.. For pansies, fertile soil that contains a lot of moisture and nutrients. At the same time, pansies do not require much care.

Planting and caring for pansies is not so difficult; they can be planted directly from seeds into the soil. At the same time, the soil is loosened, and seeds should not be planted too deeply. Water the crops very carefully, using a watering can equipped with a fine strainer so that the seeds are not washed out of the soil. In open ground, seedlings can appear within a week.

To speed up the flowering process of pansies, you need to use seedling method when seeds are planted in a greenhouse or greenhouse. Thanks to the use of this agricultural technique, you can get lush flowering bushes much earlier than if you planted seeds.

Seedlings begin to grow in February. Boxes with planted flowers need to be kept in a dark place for a week, and after the emergence of seedlings, the boxes should be moved to the brightest place. Caring for pansy seedlings is simple: water and harden the flowers on time. Flowers are transplanted into the ground in mid-May; flowering begins a month later.

Pansies

Dangerous diseases and pests

A number of diseases and pests pose a great danger to pansies. There are many diseases to which these flowers are susceptible. Among them:

• powdery mildew - affects the entire plant, areas die off after infection. Treated by spraying with a water-soap emulsion;
• gray rot - causes damage to the entire plant. Treated by spraying with a solution of copper oxychloride;
• spotting - leaves die prematurely, flowering slows down;
• black leg - rot develops on the root collar and roots of the flower; it appears with excessive watering, stagnation of water and dense soil. For the purpose of prevention, water the flower correctly and use clean planting material.

Plant pests are spider mite and aphids. When damaged, the plant withers and stops blooming, and may die over time. If infected, the flower must be treated by special means.

Combination of pansies with other plants

When planted, pansies go well with flowers such as;

Also it's important to choose flower crops suitable size towards each other so that they do not oppress when they are close. Good combination The flowerbed produces only violets, but in different shades.

Use of plants in landscape design

The advantages of using these flowers in landscape design are:

• young crops bloom at the same time;
• large assortment of shades;
• earlier onset of flowering.

Based on flowers, you can lay out ornamental carpets, line paths or decorate flowerpots with them.

Medicinal properties of the plant

It often used in folk medicine , because it has the following medicinal properties:

As a medicine plant used in pure form, as well as in the form of a decoction or infusion for diseases such as:

• skin diseases;
• respiratory tract diseases;
• gastrointestinal diseases, etc.

As you can see, pansies are a plant that is used not only for decoration landscapes and summer cottages, but also as an effective medicine for many diseases.

In floriculture, among all existing early and beautiful flowering plants Pansies are undoubtedly one of the best.

The colors of the flowers are very diverse, from simple white to black with all sorts of shades of yellow, red and blue.

In the middle of the flower, so to speak in the center, quite often you can see a small spot of an unusual shape and color.

The most popular types of this plant, of course, are Wittrock's violet and Violet tricolor; their difference lies in color and shape.

Pansies themselves are perennial plants, ranging in height from 15 to 30 cm, most often these flowers are grown as biennial plants. The shape of these flowers is very reminiscent of violets.

At the beginning of the growing season, the plant bushes are quite compact in shape, after which they become more spreading, the root system of these flowers is fibrous, but the main, main shoot is erect.

In the spaces between the leaves, pansies produce small flower stalks; they are crowned with single flowers, which can reach 7 cm in diameter. The main value of these flowers is their early and abundant flowering. Pansies begin to bloom at the end of April (this is in middle lane Russia).

Also quite widespread in this culture are a large number of varieties of large-flowered violets; these are complex hybrids that were bred by breeders during long-term work. Now there are already such hybrids that have good resistance to heat and are able to continue to bloom throughout the summer.

As already mentioned, one of the main values ​​of pansies is early and abundant flowering. These flowers are used as a two-change, early spring floral decoration for gardens, flower beds, etc. After spring passes and blooms spring look of these flowers, their places are occupied by summer species.

Pansies can be propagated by seeds and green cuttings. Sowing can be done in different time, it all depends on the required flowering time. In order to obtain abundant early spring flowering, seeds should be sown in the summer of the previous year.

In general, pansies are considered flowers with good winter hardiness, but in the regions of the north-west it happens that they freeze out or die from overheating. This usually happens due to excessive dampness of the sowing site or due to incorrectly chosen sowing time.

If you sow the seeds in the second half of May or early June, the young seedlings will begin to bloom in the fall and will outgrow. This leads to a difficult winter, since the seedlings are weakened and overcooked. Plants that did not bloom and did not grow into autumn period, tolerate wintering better and delight the eye with their abundant flowering in the spring of next year.

If the sowing was more late date, then the seedlings will have a hard time overwintering, since they have not yet had time to become sufficiently strong and bloom, this will also affect their future flowering, namely, it will be late.

To obtain pansy seedlings, seeds must be sown in special nurseries or specially prepared and treated beds. Sowing is carried out in sparse rows, and the first shoots will appear 6-14 days after sowing.

Seedlings should be transplanted immediately to other beds, or rather to places where they will winter. When picking, it is necessary to leave a space of 20x20 cm between plants.

The main thing is not to be late with picking, before the seedlings have time to stretch out and outgrow. After wintering the next year in the spring, young plants quickly begin to grow and bloom. In order to speed up the flowering process, beds in early spring can be covered with cellophane film.

During the flowering period, pansies can be transplanted into other flower beds, flower beds, boxes and pots to decorate windows, loggias and balconies. Caring for flowers in places where something is decorated consists of regular weeding and loosening. If necessary, the plants can be watered and pest control carried out.

The seedlings of this plant are very good to feed. ammonium nitrate and add superphosphate 20-40 g per 1 m2. Do not under any circumstances feed pansies with fresh manure - this plant is not tolerated!

If the plants are planted in a sunny place, then they have larger and bright flowers, but pansies growing in partial shade bloom longer, but with smaller and paler flowers. After the spring pansies have faded, they can be dug up and replaced with summer ones.

To obtain seeds from those plants that have been dug up, it is necessary to select the most compact and strong specimens, which must be planted in seed beds, where they will need to be watered.

It is important to remember when planting flowers from seeds that pansies are cross-pollinating flowers, for this reason it is necessary to maintain a spatial distance between plants different varieties. This will give you the opportunity to save pure seeds colors.

To grow them as annuals, you need to start sowing the seeds in March in a greenhouse, or at home in boxes. The picking should be carried out in April in a greenhouse, and in May the seedlings can already be planted in the ground. If you sow pansies in the spring, then they bloom longer than usual in the summer of the same year.

However, such annual crops are significantly inferior in color and size to those plants that were sown last year. To get autumn flowering, you need to sow the seeds in late April - early May and flowering will occur on the 55-70th day.

Reproduction

Vegetative method of propagation hybrid varieties green cuttings directly into open ground is very simple, and also makes it possible to leave a pure variety and get more in just one summer planting material. Cuttings should be taken in 2-3 doses from May to July.

You should choose finite shoots that are still green and have 2-3 nodes. Especially for this, you should choose a shaded, slightly damp place, preferably under trees, and make low beds there. They need to be compacted tightly and watered well.

Cuttings should be planted to a depth of 0.5 cm; all cuttings should be planted tightly in relation to each other, so that their leaves touch.

If the cuttings were made in May or June, their flowering will occur in the summer or autumn of the same year; if the cuttings were taken later, flowering will occur the following year in the spring. After the cuttings have taken root, in the fall they can be transplanted into a garden bed or flower garden, where they will continue to grow.

If the cuttings took place in the month of August, it is better to leave the plants for the winter in the same place until next year, covering them with a leaf for the winter. And in the spring of next year, these cuttings can be transplanted into a flower garden.

Diseases and pests

Growing pansies is convenient because there are very few problems with them, even in terms of pests. These plants are susceptible to aphids and owls, but they can be easily controlled with special products that can be purchased at specialty stores.

Possible diseases of this plant can only attack if agricultural practices are violated, for example, blackleg, root and stem rot, spotting and powdery mildew.

Due to the fact that pansies are not demanding in growing, they are easy to grow not only in flower beds and beds, but also on balconies and loggias in pots, they can serve as an excellent decoration for bulbous flowers and alpine slides.

And we repeat once again, when proper care these wonderful flowers will delight you from spring until late autumn.

Pansy or tricolor violet (viola) is a common variety of flowers, loved by many gardeners because of its ease of care and variety of flowering. Color palette plants vary from snow-white to black-purple. Thanks to the unusual pattern of inflorescences and seed pods, reminiscent of a human face, pansies are associated with many legends and superstitions. It is believed that the plant helps to find love and bewitch a loved one. And in France and Poland, this particular flower is given after a long separation. Pansies will decorate any personal plot, flowerbed or lawn with its charming appearance.

Description of the plant

Pansies (Wittrock's viola) belong to the group. However, due to their wide distribution in mid-latitudes, they are often grown for no more than two years. The height of the bush depends on the variety and climatic conditions, usually 15-30 centimeters. Externally, the flowers are very similar to violets, from which they were bred. The plant has a fibrous root system and an erect main stem.

Pansies

In the first month after planting, the bush is compact, and by the end of the first year of life it can grow significantly in width. The flowers are single, but on one bush their number can be more than 10, the diameter of one inflorescence is up to 7 centimeters, depending on the variety. The color range of pansies is varied, which is often used by gardeners for decoration. flower bed or terraces. There are single-color varieties and three-color hybrids.

Many gardeners love this plant for its early flowering, which occurs in April-May, when other plants are still in a state of growth.

Types and varieties

With the help of selection, numerous varieties of pansies have been developed, which are distinguished by their growth characteristics, resistance to unfavorable climatic conditions, diseases, and also have different shades of petals. There are more than 400 varieties of this plant, divided into groups depending on the size of the flower.

Small-flowered

The diameter of one flower in these species does not exceed 6 centimeters.

• Hemalis winter. This is a combined name for numerous varieties of pansies, characterized by early and very long flowering. They are frost-resistant and compact, which makes it possible to grow them even on the balcony. The most famous varieties of Hemalis: Nordpol (white flowers), Helios (bright yellow), Mars (rich Blue colour), Jupiter (white-red petals);

• Station wagon F1. This group includes 10 varieties, distinguished by small bushes and abundant flowering;
• Rococo. This variety is characterized by ruffled petals of a purple hue;
• Flamenco F1. A variety that does not tolerate frost well, but has a unique color - spreading yellow spot in the center of the red-orange petal.

Medium flowered

These varieties have flower diameters from 6 to 7.5 centimeters.

• Trimardo. One of the oldest types of pansies. They have a spreading bush and abundant flowering. The flower shape is classic, the color depends on the variety. For example, Adonis (light blue petals), Cardinal (dark red), Morenkönig (black);

• Swiss giant. The advantage of this species is the early onset of flowering and unique resistance to frost. The most famous varieties of this species are Firneshnee (white petals), Flamme (orange-red), Bergwacht (purple-blue).
• Joker F2. The petals of this hybrid species are colored two or three very bright colors. 7 varieties have been developed, the most famous of them is Jolly Joker;
• Veseler Ice F1. This species is represented by 8 varieties of different colors;
• Quedlinburger Risen. A fairly common type of pansy in Europe. It has abundant early flowering, but poor resistance to low temperatures.

Large-flowered

The diameter of these types of pansies reaches 8.5 centimeters.

• Crown F1. This species has large flowers with small bushes. Great for decorating flower beds. 9 varieties are presented;

• Power F1. The petals of plants of this species have bright colors and long flowering. The most common are 13 varieties;
• Shalon Supreme. The species is represented by only 5 varieties, the peculiarity of which is corrugated petals of various shades of purple;
• Dynamite. One of the most interesting viol series. 13 varieties have single-color petals with a large spot of contrasting color; 10 varieties are completely monochromatic. The most unusual variety of this species is Strawberry; the flower petals of this hybrid change color depending on the air temperature.

Giant violas

Varieties of this type have flowers with a diameter of 8.5 centimeters.

• Super Majestic Giants F1. This type of pansy is represented by 8 varieties with a long flowering period. The diameter of the flowers reaches 11 centimeters with a relatively small bush size. The color of the petals is represented by a wide range of colors from beige to purple;
• Magnum F1. Most the new kind series, with early flowering. 12 varieties have been developed.

These are not all types and varieties of violas. Using breeding methods, new hybrids are regularly developed that have unusual colors and flowering characteristics.

Features of growing from seeds

Some gardeners plant pre-grown seedlings in prepared soil. This method reduces the risk of plant death while still in seed state and is excellent for regions with unfavorable climatic conditions.

Care during the flowering period

During flowering, plants need special care, they need constant watering, loosening the soil, and also getting rid of weeds. This improves flower quality and prolongs flowering time.

• immediately after planting, regular loosening of the soil and daily moderate watering are necessary;
• For active growth plants and successful formation of ovaries, it is important to feed pansies. Complex fertilizers can be used as fertilizers. mineral supplements, but use is prohibited organic fertilizers. Read more about the types and features of applying mineral fertilizers;

Mineral fertilizers

• During the flowering period, faded buds must be removed in time to allow new ones to grow. Plus, this technique allows you to avoid fruiting, which will lead to the cessation of flowering;
• When growing spring varieties of viola, after flowering they need to be dug up, after which summer varieties can be planted.

Growing as an annual crop

Pansies are often used as annual flowers. To do this, the seeds need to be planted in containers that are covered with transparent plastic film. Starting in April, you can transplant the seedlings into a greenhouse or greenhouse; after a month, the plants are completely ready for planting in an open sunny place. In warm regions, planting is permissible from the beginning of spring; this will allow flowering to occur by mid-June. As a rule, violas begin to bloom 2 months after planting.

Annual flowers are distinguished by a smaller diameter of petals and small bushes. That's why this type cultivation is not suitable for the formation of a large flowering lawn.

Cuttings

Many pansy hybrids can be grown using cuttings. This method allows you to preserve and improve all the species characteristics of an individual.

Cuttings

1. Shoots with several ovaries are harvested from early May to late July. Next, they are planted in the prepared soil;
2. It is advisable to plant cuttings in well-compacted beds with high density. It is important to monitor the planting depth; it should not exceed a few centimeters. On 1 square meter you can plant up to 400 plants;
3. After the cuttings are in the ground, the soil must be moistened with a spray bottle or a small watering can and complex fertilizer must be applied;
4. For better adaptation of colors, you can cover the area with damp paper or glass jar. This will protect the plants from unfavorable external conditions. IN further care the same as for seed planting.

Using cuttings, you can rejuvenate perennial plants that lose their quality and grow strongly over the entire area. From one pansy bush you can get more than 10 new plants.

Diseases and pests

Although pansies are known for their resistance to disease and pests, there are a number of problems that gardeners may encounter.

The most common diseases are:

• rot– affect the stem and roots of the plant, causing blackening of the surface and wilting. If the infection is minor, you can remove the infected areas of the plant, but if the infection is significant, the use of fungicides is necessary;

Regular only preventative treatment and compliance with growing conditions will help avoid the occurrence of pests and diseases. Often the appearance of a disease on one plant can lead to the death of the entire planting.

Pests are no less dangerous for violas. They typically appear in humid climates and on old plants with frequent planting.

• Aphid. This is very small insects living in large colonies. They infect the entire surface of the plant, most often the stem, and feed on its juices. As a result, the flower dies or weakens significantly. You can get rid of aphids using insecticides;
• Root root nematodes. This is a type of worm that appears in the roots of pansies. Settling inside the root system, they eat it away from the inside. As a result, galls or swellings form on the roots, causing the plant to quickly die. The problem can only be dealt with with the help of insecticides. As a rule, it is necessary to treat plants twice, since the chemicals do not affect nematode eggs;
• . Pests eat the above-ground parts of the plant. They affect not only pansies, but also other flowers in the area. To get rid of slugs, you can mulch the soil or make special baits.

Video

For a clear example of growing pansies from seeds, see Ivideo

Conclusion

Pansies or violas are charming flowers that will decorate any garden plot. They have numerous colors and petal sizes, which allows you to create entire flower pictures in your garden. Plus, these are perennial plants that, with proper care, will delight you for many years. Read more about the varieties and cultivation of garden viola.

Pansy or Viola is not at all an elegant metaphor from poetry about female beauty. This is a charming flower that all experienced flower growers and more know about. There is another name for this flower, less romantic, but no less elegant - Vitrocca Violet. All these names are for the same plant, a cute garden flower.

Pansies - perennial, but is more often grown as a biennial and annual. There are many varieties of this flower - different in height (some reach only 15 cm, and some up to 30 cm), in the size of the flowers (small and large). This flower evokes admiration and demand among flower growers for its diversity of species and ability to bloom everything. summer time, and also not to freeze out in the severe winter cold.

Growing Pansies

Where to plant? Pansies are a very hardy and unpretentious plant. It can live both in the shade of a dense garden and in the sun. However, a slightly shaded location is preferable to prolong flowering time. In deep shade, the flowers will be small and their number will be less than in moderate shade. Viola prefers moist, well-fertilized soil, but poor, sandy soil will not allow large-flowered varieties to express themselves in all their glory.

How to plant? Most often, pansies are propagated by seed, but sometimes vegetative methods are used. For getting early flowering you need to think about this in advance. In order to see flowers in the coming spring, the plants need to be prepared in mid-summer. First you need to sow the seeds on pre-prepared beds, avoiding excessive density. It will take one to two weeks before the shoots appear. You need to wait another week for the seedlings to get stronger, and then you can pick them up and carry out care, which consists of watering and fertilizing. It is enough to fertilize the soil once every ten days, alternating mineral and organic fertilizers.

The main task of growing pansies is to allow them to become well established. initial stage, which will allow them to get stronger and prepare for winter frosts. It is very important to prevent flowering at this time as it will weaken the plants. Of course, in different regions Pansies will bloom at different times, but on average, it is recommended to replant flowers at the very end of summer. If it is not possible to replant, it is necessary to provide the plants with free space during the picking process; the distance between the flowers should be about 25 cm.

Generally, it will take one year to grow Pansies. There are no special requirements for preparing seedlings of this flower. In February, the seeds are sown in a container, which is placed in a dark place. The temperature in the room should be approximately 18-20 degrees; under proper conditions, sprouts will appear within 10 days; after they appear, it is recommended to move the container to a cool, well-lit place. You need to wait another week before picking up the seedlings. Seedlings are planted in open ground in early May. Now all that remains is to wait for flowering, which will certainly occur by the end of this month.

A few notes on caring for an adult plant. In addition to watering, weeding and fertilizing mineral fertilizers, it is necessary to periodically remove dried leaves and flowers. These, in principle, are all the basic requirements for growing this flower.

Now it has become clear that Pansies really do not require special labor care This cute and lovely plant will decorate any area.

Botanical characteristics

Pansy (Viola tricolor) - this plant has other names, I will list them: tricolor, tricolor violet, willow-herb, kamchug. It belongs to the violet family.

This herbaceous plant It can be biennial or annual. Its stems are hollow, triangular, rather thin and branched, up to twenty centimeters high. The leaves are alternate, rounded-heart-shaped, and can be petiolate or sessile.

Leaves small size, slightly grooved at the edges, with an uneven edge. Root system fibrous. The special value of these flowers lies in their early, long and abundant flowering. In central Russia you can admire them already at the end of April.

The flowers are single, very beautiful, with variegated multi-colored petals, they are located on long stalks in the axils of the leaves. Pansies bloom from April until the end of September. The fruit is a small capsule; when it dries, ripe seeds are forcefully ejected from it.

Even in ancient times, pansies were credited with a bewitching property. All you have to do is sprinkle a little juice of this plant on the eyelids of a sleeping person, and after waking up, he will fall in love forever.

The French and Poles love to give these delicate flowers as souvenirs. And in England there is a tradition: young man If you are embarrassed to declare your love, you just need to send this dried flower to your chosen one, write your name, and everything will be clear to the girl.

Spreading

Often found in meadows, fields, and forest edges in the European part of Russia, the Urals, and Siberia. It is one of the favorite flowers among gardeners, and on almost every summer cottage you can meet these lovely creatures.

Part used

The herbaceous part of this plant is used. Quite a lot of useful substances were found in it, for example, ascorbic, ursolic and salicylic acid, carotenoids, many different flavonoids, there is rutin.

Violet flowers contain essential oil and glycosides belonging to the anthocyanin group, for example, violanine, delphinidin. The roots contain minimal amounts of alkaloids.

Collection and procurement of raw materials

It is customary to collect flowering grass. It is usually tied into small bundles and hung in a shady, ventilated place, or laid out on a cloth in a thin layer and put under a canopy to dry. This procedure should not be delayed, as the raw materials may become moldy. It can be stored for two years.

Cultivation, reproduction and care

Ivan da Marya prefers to grow in a sunny or shaded place. The soil should be loose and loamy. The plant is undemanding and quite easy to grow. It is propagated by seeds and small green cuttings, and sowing is carried out depending on the planned time of flowering.

In order to get early spring, quite abundant flowering, it is necessary to sow the seeds in the summer of last year. The plant is winter-hardy, but in some regions its partial freezing is observed, most often this occurs in excessively damp places and with incorrect sowing dates.

To obtain seedlings, seed material is added to the soil of the nursery or to the beds; the seedlings will delight you within 6-14 days. Care is completely normal, it consists of watering - medium frequency, loosening the rows, as well as pest control.

In order to speed up flowering, it is recommended to cover the beds with film in early spring. Seedlings can be fed with superphosphate and ammonium nitrate, but in no case with fresh manure. To prolong flowering, it is necessary to remove faded flowers in a timely manner.

Application

In folk medicine, it is customary to use this plant for neuroses, palpitations, and sleep disturbances. The collection is also prescribed for inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract, as it has a mucolytic effect.

Violet is included in many preparations and is used to treat the urinary tract due to its diuretic and anti-inflammatory effects. This herb has a diaphoretic and blood purifying effect.

It is also prescribed for diseases of the joints, and is also used for dermatological problems, for example, furunculosis, acne.

Infusion recipe

To prepare the infusion, you need to take a tablespoon of this raw material, then pour 200 milliliters of it hot water, after which it is recommended to heat the mixture in a water bath; fifteen minutes will be enough for this.

Then cool the prepared infusion and filter through a strainer, or use a triple gauze layer. Take the drug for therapeutic purposes, about a third of a glass after meals, about three times a day.

Contraindications to the use of tricolor violet

You should not take an infusion of this plant if you have kidney diseases, in particular with glomerulonephritis. And also in case of liver pathology, for example, hepatitis, you should also refuse to use this raw material. If doses are exceeded, dyspepsia may occur, which will manifest itself in the form of nausea and vomiting.

Conclusion

Before using this herb, you should consult a specialist with higher education. medical education. If a disease appears, first consult a doctor, and only then folk recipes, so there is a greater chance of recovery from any emerging pathology.